Three plants keep coming up whenever memory is discussed: lion's mane, a mushroom, ginkgo, a tree, and bacopa, a small plant from wetland areas. Yet their scientific portfolios are hardly comparable. Ginkgo was the subject of one of the largest trials ever conducted on a plant and memory: 3,069 people aged 75 and over followed for a median of 6.1 years, with no reduction in the number of dementia cases. Bacopa is based on about ten trials of 12 weeks focused on word recall. Lion's mane, meanwhile, has only a handful of small trials with mixed results.
This comparison brings together human trials identified via PubMed, including those without effect, separated from animal data, then safety and what weighs as much as the plants.
Ginkgo and bacopa : in seniors, the two major prevention trials of ginkgo, with nearly 6,000 participants followed for 5 to 6 years, did not reduce the risk of dementia, and in healthy adults its effect on memory is null. Moderate and heterogeneous effects appear in established dementia, especially at 240 mg per day. In 6 trials of 12 weeks, at 300 to 450 mg of extract per day, bacopa improved 9 of 17 free recall tests, with digestive disorders as the main adverse effect.
Lion's mane : eight small trials, with 10 to 49 participants, using all different preparations. In mild cognitive decline, an overall score improved in 16 weeks then declined four weeks after stopping; in young adults, effects are limited to one test or absent. No trial tested the combination of all three plants.
- What is measured when we talk about memory
- Lion's mane: what animal and laboratory studies show
- Lion's mane: human trials, one by one
- Ginkgo: the major prevention trials
- Ginkgo: healthy adult, mild decline and dementia
- Bacopa: trials and meta-analyses
- The comparison table of the three
- Safety and interactions
- Combining multiple plants
- What weighs as much as the plants
- How to choose according to your situation
- Frequently asked questions
What we measure when we talk about memory
Trials distinguish immediate memory, what is retained just after a list of words, delayed memory, what remains 20 to 30 minutes later, and working memory, which keeps a few elements in mind to manipulate them, not to mentionattention and processing speed.
The Rey verbal test teaches 15 words and then has them recalled after a delay: this is the measure of delayed recall in bacopa trials. The Stroop test, naming the color of a word written in another color, measures selective attention. In older adults, global scales such as the MMSE, scored out of 30, are used.
Theacute effect, measured one to two hours after a single dose, differs from theeffect of a course lasting several weeks. And the population changes everything: a young adult leaves little room for improvement, and a memory complaint is neither mild cognitive decline nor dementia. A result obtained in one group does not transfer to others.
Meta-analyses often express their results in effect size, which relates the difference between two groups to the dispersion of measurements. By convention, 0.2 corresponds to a small effect, 0.5 to a medium effect, and 0.8 to a large effect.
Lion's mane: what animal and laboratory studies show
Lion's mane, or Hericium erinaceus, comes in two forms. The fruiting body, the visible part with long white spines, contains hericenones ; the mycelium, the network of filaments that grows in the substrate, of erinacines. Both stimulated, in the laboratory, the production of nerve growth factor, which maintains neuron survival. Human trials use one or the other part, or even a mixture: their results therefore do not add up.
Brain passage has only been verified in animals for certain erinacines, according to the authors of one trial; which compounds reach the human brain, and at what dose, remains open.
In the laboratory, an aqueous extract of fruiting body, at 25 µg per milliliter, promoted the growth of extensions by mouse hippocampus neurons and increased the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, a protein of hippocampal plasticity.
In animals, purified erinacine C improved short-term spatial memory in mice engineered to develop lesions similar to Alzheimer's disease, and reduced their amyloid plaques.
A cell in culture or a transgenic mouse does not predict absorption in humans, useful dose, or effect on memory: only human trials can inform this. Our article on the benefits of lion's mane details other leads.
Lion's mane: human trials, one by one
A 2025 systematic review identifies five randomized trials and three pilot trials; the combined gain on the MMSE, calculated on only two of them, reaches 1.17 points. Here are the trials on cognition, with their exact preparation.
Mild cognitive decline. The first trial, Japanese, divided 30 people aged 50 to 80 with mild cognitive decline into two groups of 15. The active group took four tablets of 250 mg at 96% dry powder of fruiting body, three times daily, approximately 3 g of powder daily, for 16 weeks. Its cognitive score improved more than placebo at weeks 8, 12, and 16, then significantly declined four weeks after discontinuation. The lead author was affiliated with a mushroom producer.
In 30 Japanese people aged 50 to 80 with mild cognitive decline, approximately 3 g daily of fruiting body powder for 16 weeks improved a cognitive score compared to placebo, increasingly with duration of use; four weeks after discontinuation, scores had significantly declined. Biological analyses showed no adverse effects.
Mori K, Inatomi S, Ouchi K, et al. Phytother Res 2009;23(3):367-372. DOI: 10.1002/ptr.2634
Middle-aged adults. A 12-week trial tested fruiting body biscuits in 31 participants with an average age of approximately 61 years, according to the description provided by other authors. On three tests, only the MMSE improved; the Benton visual retention test and a word pair learning test showed no change.
Early Alzheimer's. The longest trial lasted 49 weeks in people with mild Alzheimer's disease, with three capsules daily of 350 mg of mycelium enriched in erinacine A (5 mg per gram). Of 49 randomized participants, 41 completed the trial, approximately 75 years old. The active group's MMSE increased from 21.75 to 23.2, but the difference between groups was not significant for either the MMSE or the other cognitive scale; only the daily activities scale differed at trial end. Three withdrawals for adverse effects occurred under mycelium (abdominal discomfort, nausea, rash), one under placebo. Several authors were employees of the extract manufacturer.
Young adults, effects of a treatment course. In 41 adults aged 18 to 45, 1.8 g daily of a lion's mane complex for 28 days improved neither overall scores nor episodic memory; in fact, the placebo group recalled more words in delayed recall, and only a trend toward less perceived stress appeared under lion's mane. In 24 students, 10 g daily incorporated into muffins for 4 weeks had no effect, as did 2 g daily of mycelium and fruiting body in 10 adults, in a pilot trial without placebo.
Acute effects. In the young adult trial, a single 1.8 g dose accelerated the Stroop one hour later, from 737.70 to 688.05 milliseconds, but reduced the accuracy of immediate word recall. In 40 adults, 1 g of fruiting body improved reaction times and a calculation task two hours later. In 18 young adults, 3 g of a 10:1 concentrated fruiting body extract had no overall effect, except on a dexterity test.
| Population and preparation | Result on memory and cognition | Study |
|---|---|---|
| 30 people with mild cognitive decline, approximately 3 g daily of fruiting body powder, 16 weeks | Improved cognitive score; significant decline 4 weeks after discontinuation | Mori, 2009 |
| 31 adults approximately 61 years old (according to other authors), fruiting body biscuits, 12 weeks | MMSE improved; two other memory tests unchanged | Saitsu, 2019 |
| 41 people with mild Alzheimer's, 3 capsules of mycelium enriched with erinacine A, 49 weeks | MMSE increased in the active group, no significant difference between groups; improved daily activities | Li, 2020 |
| 41 adults aged 18 to 45, 1.8 g per day, 28 days | No effect on overall scores; delayed recall better under placebo | Docherty, 2023 |
| 24 students, 10 g per day in muffins, 4 weeks | No effect | Grozier, 2022 |
| 10 adults, no placebo, 2 g per day of mycelium and fruiting body, 28 days | No significant change | Evans, 2026 |
| 40 adults, 1 g of fruiting body in a single dose | Reaction time and calculation task improved at 2 hours | La Monica, 2023 |
| 18 young adults, 3 g of 10:1 fruiting body extract in a single dose | No overall effect; only one dexterity test improved | Surendran, 2025 |
The evidence is thin: no trial with more than 49 participants, preparations and doses never identical, and results often based on a single test. The only trial that followed participants after stopping saw the effect disappear within four weeks.
Our Lion's Mane is a concentrated 4:1 extract of fruiting body: two capsules provide 1,500 mg of extract. None of the trials above used this preparation, and its milligrams are not comparable to those of powders, mycelia, or other tested extracts: their results are specific to them. For precautions for use, our article on lion's mane side effects covers this.
Ginkgo: major prevention trials
Ginkgo trials use standardized dry extracts of leaves, standardized in flavonoids and terpene lactones. Two major trials tested whether they protect against dementia: the answer was no.
In 3,069 people aged 75 and older, including 2,587 without cognitive impairment and 482 with mild cognitive decline, 120 mg of ginkgo extract twice daily for a median of 6.1 years did not reduce the onset of dementia: 277 cases on ginkgo versus 246 on placebo, or 3.3 versus 2.9 cases per 100 person-years, a non-significant difference. The progression from mild cognitive decline to dementia was not slowed either.
DeKosky ST, Williamson JD, Fitzpatrick AL, et al. JAMA 2008;300(19):2253-2262. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2008.683
In the same trial, among these participants aged 72 to 96 years, the annual rate of decline did not differ for memory, attention, visuo-spatial abilities, language, or executive functions.
The French GuidAge trial posed the question in 2,854 people aged 70 and older who had spontaneously reported a memory complaint to their general practitioner. After 5 years on 120 mg of standardized extract twice daily, 61 people in the ginkgo group had received a diagnosis of probable Alzheimer's disease, compared to 73 on placebo, or 1.2 versus 1.4 cases per 100 person-years: a non-significant difference, with risk that did not remain constant over time. Cerebral strokes (65 versus 60) and other hemorrhagic events did not differ. This trial was funded by a pharmaceutical company.
They measure neither memory in younger adults nor the effect in established dementia, addressed in the next section.
Ginkgo: healthy adult, mild decline and dementia
Healthy adult. A meta-analysis of randomized trials pooled 13 trials on memory (1,132 participants), 7 on executive functions, and 8 on attention. Effect sizes were near zero and non-significant: −0.04 for memory, −0.05 for executive functions, −0.08 for attention. They did not depend on age, duration, or dose.
Cognitive decline and dementia. The picture changes in sick people, though it does not become entirely clear. The Cochrane review included 36 trials, most small and short; the nine six-month trials (2,016 patients) gave inconsistent results, and in the 925 patients with Alzheimer's no consistent benefit appeared. The authors judge the evidence inconsistent and unreliable, without being able to exclude publication bias.
In 2,372 patients with dementia, treated for 12 to 52 weeks with the same standardized extract, ginkgo performed better than placebo on cognition, with an effect size of −0.58 (a moderate effect, the negative sign here reflecting a benefit), but not significantly on activities of daily living. Heterogeneity between trials was high, and clinical relevance, according to the authors, was difficult to establish.
Weinmann S, Roll S, Schwarzbach C, et al. BMC Geriatr 2010;10:14. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2318-10-14
A more recent meta-analysis of 9 trials of 22 to 26 weeks (2,561 patients with cognitive decline or dementia) found a benefit on cognition, daily activities, and global clinical impression, essentially at a dose of 240 mg per day, and more pronounced in patients also presenting neuropsychiatric symptoms; in the Alzheimer's subgroup, results were not superior to those of the overall group. As the Cochrane review notes, most trials used the same standardized extract.
Our article ginkgo biloba, benefits and how to use it details its other studied uses, including tinnitus.
Our formula Memorine contains 120 mg of ginkgo biloba extract standardized to 24% flavonol glycosides and 6% terpene lactones per two capsules, or half the daily dose from the prevention trials above (120 mg twice daily, 240 mg per day). No trial has tested Memorine, and no effect can be inferred from it.
Bacopa: trials and meta-analyses
Bacopa, or Bacopa monnieri, is a plant from Ayurvedic medicine whose extracts are standardized in bacosides. Its trials are similar: standardized extracts, most often 300 mg per day, 12 weeks, verbal memory tests.
Healthy adults. In an Australian trial, 300 mg per day of extract improved visual processing speed, learning, and consolidation on the Rey test, with maximum effects at 12 weeks rather than at 5. In 76 adults aged 40 to 65, three months of bacopa improved retention of newly learned information, without changing learning speed: the plant seemed to slow forgetting. Attention, short-term memory, and everyday memory did not change.
In 54 people aged 65 and older (mean age 73.5 years) without dementia, of whom 48 completed the trial, 300 mg per day of a standardized whole plant extract for 12 weeks improved delayed word recall on the Rey test, the primary outcome, as well as the Stroop test, with no effect on divided attention or on a working memory test. Adverse effects, mainly stomach upset, were as frequent as with placebo (9 versus 10 people).
Calabrese C, Gregory WL, Leo M, et al. J Altern Complement Med 2008;14(6):707-713. DOI: 10.1089/acm.2008.0018
In 98 Australians over 55 years old, of whom 81 completed the trial, 300 mg per day for 12 weeks improved verbal learning and delayed recall on the Rey test. Visual memory, measured by copying a complex figure, memory complaints, and the trail-making test showed improvement without significant difference from placebo. Bacopa caused more digestive disturbances: more frequent stools, abdominal cramps, nausea.
What the syntheses show. A review of 6 trials of 12 weeks at 300 to 450 mg of extract per day found improvement on 9 of 17 free recall tests, and little evidence elsewhere. A meta-analysis of 9 trials (518 participants) found mainly improved attention speed. A more recent meta-analysis of 11 trials (645 participants) found, for most memory and attention tests, no difference from placebo. Its authors conclude that evidence for an effect on healthy adult memory is weak or absent, and note that no pair of trials found an effect on the same two tests.
Two network meta-analyses indirectly compare multiple plants. The first, on 29 trials and 2,107 healthy adults, ranks bacopa at high dose (600 mg per day and above) first for working memory, with effect sizes around 2 versus placebo and ginkgo, and bacopa at lower dose ahead of ginkgo at low dose and placebo for delayed memory; no difference appears for attention and processing speed. These values are unusually high, without direct comparison of the two plants. The second, in 1,861 seniors, places a bacopa-based formula first for executive functions, but raisins and tart cherry first for memory: reason to put these rankings in perspective.
No bacopa trial evaluates an acute effect: measurements take place after 12 weeks, and in the trial that tested at midpoint, effects were maximal at the end. Judging bacopa after a few days therefore makes no sense in light of the studies.
Our formula Memorine provides, per two capsules, 300 mg of bacopa extract standardized to 20% bacosides. The 12-week trials cited here used 300 to 450 mg per day of different extracts, whose bacoside content is not always comparable to that of this extract. No trial has tested Memorine or its combination of bacopa, ginkgo, and ginseng: no effect can be inferred from this.
In animals, a bacopa extract at 200 mg per kilo increased thyroxine, a thyroid hormone, by 41% in mice. No equivalent human data has been identified.
The comparative table of the three
The level of evidence indicated is an editorial assessment.
| Criterion | Lion's mane | Ginkgo | Bacopa |
|---|---|---|---|
| Human trials | 8 trials, with 10 to 49 participants | Dozens of trials, including 2 with nearly 3,000 seniors | About a dozen trials, with approximately 50 to 100 participants |
| Populations | Healthy young adult, over 50 years, mild decline, early Alzheimer's | Healthy adult, senior, mild decline, dementia | Healthy adult, senior without dementia |
| Preparation and dose studied | Powder, extracts or mycelium, 1 to 10 g, all different | Standardized dry extract, 120 to 240 mg per day | Standardized extract, 300 to 450 mg per day |
| Effect on memory | Partial, often on a single test; null in healthy young adults | Null in healthy adults and for prevention; moderate and heterogeneous in dementia | Modest and inconsistent, mainly delayed word recall |
| Level of evidence | Weak | High for absence of preventive effect; moderate in dementia | Weak to moderate, contrasting syntheses |
| Timing | 8 to 16 weeks in mild cognitive decline; effect lost in 4 weeks | 22 to 26 weeks in dementia | 12 weeks, maximum effect at end of treatment course |
| Adverse effects | Digestive disorders, rash, rare serious reactions published | Comparable to placebo in trials | Digestive disorders: nausea, cramps, more frequent stools |
| Interactions to be aware of | Anticoagulants, antidiabetics, mushroom allergy | Anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents, surgery | Thyroid, to be confirmed in humans |
Safety and interactions
Ginkgo and bleeding. A meta-analysis of 18 trials (1,985 adults) using standardized extracts found no significant effect on platelet aggregation or coagulation times, and large prevention trials did not report increased hemorrhagic events. However, in a retrospective hospital study of 2,647 ginkgo extract prescriptions, 12.94% involved an interaction, most often with clopidogrel and aspirin, associated with bleeding risk. These are associations, not proof of causation; with anticoagulants or antiplatelet agents, and before surgery, ginkgo should be discussed with your doctor.
Bacopa and digestion. Digestive disorders are the most consistent adverse effect: nausea, cramps, and more frequent stools in 98 seniors, stomach upset in 54 others, though as frequent as with placebo. The thyroid signal observed in mice warrants medical consultation if thyroid disorder is present.
Lion's mane. In the 49-week trial, three participants in the active group withdrew due to abdominal discomfort, nausea, or skin rash; a review also cites headaches and allergic reactions. One serious case was published: a 63-year-old man developed acute respiratory distress syndrome with a strong immune reaction to a lion's mane extract taken four months earlier; he recovered on corticosteroids and mechanical ventilation. This case remains isolated.
Memorine : reserved for adults; not recommended for pregnant or breastfeeding women, in case of epilepsy, scheduled invasive procedures (surgery, invasive dental care), anticoagulant or antidepressant treatment; if taking medication, seek advice from a healthcare professional. Do not combine with another product containing ginkgo, such as our Organic Ginkgo, or ginseng, such as our Red Ginseng. Lion's Mane : reserved for adults; not recommended for pregnant and breastfeeding women; with anticoagulants or antidiabetics, consult your doctor or pharmacist; if you have a mushroom allergy history, seek advice from a healthcare professional.
Combining multiple plants
No identified trial has tested the combination of lion's mane, ginkgo, and bacopa, nor that of bacopa and ginkgo. The only comparisons between these two plants are indirect, from network meta-analyses.
Our Memorine combines bacopa, ginkgo, and red ginseng: this combination has not been tested in any trial, and we do not attribute any of the results presented here to it. It should not be combined with another product containing ginkgo or ginseng. Adding lion's mane to it is a personal choice, to be discussed with a healthcare professional if you are taking medication.
Other avenues have been studied for mental fatigue, such as rhodiola or creatine.
What matters as much as plants
Physical activity. A meta-analysis of 39 studies in people over 50 shows that exercise improves cognitive function, with an effect size of 0.29, regardless of the domain tested or whether participants had cognitive impairment. Endurance, strength training, combined programs, and tai-chi all have an effect; sessions of 45 to 60 minutes at moderate intensity or higher are associated with benefits.
In adults aged 50 and over with hypertension, targeting systolic pressure below 120 mmHg rather than 140 mmHg reduced the risk of mild cognitive decline (14.6 versus 18.3 cases per 1,000 person-years) and the combined risk of mild decline or dementia. The reduction in risk of probable dementia alone was not significant, as the trial was stopped early.
Williamson JD, Pajewski NM, Auchus AP, et al. JAMA 2019;321(6):553-561. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2018.21442
Sleep. According to a meta-analysis of 70 articles, total sleep deprivation of less than 48 hours impairs attention, working memory, and processing speed, with effects ranging from mild to significant. Sufficient nights of sleep remain a prerequisite, as our guide on mental fatigue.
Hearing. In the ACHIEVE trial, 977 people aged 70 to 84 with hearing loss received hearing aids or health education. Overall, cognitive decline at 3 years did not differ, but the effect appeared favorable in the oldest population and those most exposed to risk factors.
Diet also matters, with adequate vitamin B12 intake and a place for fatty fish rich in omega-3.
How to choose based on your situation
These guidelines follow the studied populations and do not replace medical advice.
In practice, Mémorine is taken at two capsules per day with a large glass of water, preferably in the morning at breakfast, and Lion's Mane at two capsules at a time of day that suits you: these are usage recommendations, not study results. The limitations of lion's mane are detailed in our guide to mycotherapy.
Bacopa and ginkgo in standardized extracts : two vegetable capsules provide 300 mg of bacopa extract at 20% bacosides and 120 mg of standardized ginkgo biloba extract, with red ginseng. One dose in the morning, for a 30-day course that can be renewed.
See MémorineDo you prefer mushroom? Discover our Lion's Mane, a 4:1 concentrated extract of fruiting body.
Frequently asked questions
Lion's mane, ginkgo or bacopa: which to choose for memory?
In adults without dementia, bacopa has the most positive trials on word recall, with modest and inconsistent effects according to reviews: at 300 to 450 mg of extract per day for 12 weeks, it mainly improved delayed recall of words. Ginkgo showed no effect on memory in healthy adults, and lion's mane is based on a few small trials with partial results. No trial has compared them directly.
Does lion's mane improve memory?
The evidence remains limited. In 30 people with mild cognitive decline, approximately 3 g per day of fruiting body powder improved a cognitive score in 16 weeks. In young adults, several trials show no effect, and the effect observed in mild decline disappeared four weeks after stopping.
Does ginkgo prevent Alzheimer's disease?
No according to the two largest trials. In 3,069 people aged 75 and older followed for a median of 6.1 years, and in 2,854 people aged 70 and older with memory complaints followed for 5 years, 120 mg of standardized extract twice daily did not reduce the risk of dementia or Alzheimer's disease.
Does ginkgo improve memory in healthy adults?
A meta-analysis of 13 memory trials involving 1,132 healthy participants found no effect (effect size of −0.04), regardless of age, dose, and duration.
How long does it take for bacopa to work?
Trials measure its effects after 12 weeks, at 300 to 450 mg of extract per day. In one trial that tested at 5 and then 12 weeks, effects were maximal at 12 weeks.
What are the side effects of bacopa?
Mainly digestive disorders: nausea, abdominal cramps, and more frequent stools in one trial in people over 55, stomach upset in another. In mice, an extract increased a thyroid hormone, which warrants medical consultation in case of thyroid disorder.
Is ginkgo compatible with an anticoagulant?
A meta-analysis of 18 trials shows no effect of standardized extracts on coagulation, but a retrospective hospital study associates ginkgo interactions with aspirin or clopidogrel with a bleeding risk. With anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapy, and before surgery, it should always be discussed with your doctor.
Can lion's mane, ginkgo, and bacopa be combined?
No trial has tested the combination of all three, nor that of bacopa and ginkgo. If combining, it is especially important to avoid accumulating two products containing the same ingredient, such as two sources of ginkgo, and to seek advice if taking other medications.
What is the best plant for memory?
None achieves consensus. Bacopa has the most positive trials on word recall in adults without dementia, with modest and inconsistent effects; ginkgo has moderate effects in established dementia; lion's mane has preliminary signals. Physical activity remains an equally solid lever.
When to consult for memory problems?
When forgetfulness worsens over a few months, interferes with daily life, such as repeatedly missed appointments or difficulty managing paperwork, or concerns those around you. An assessment helps identify a cause to treat.
Sources
The studies cited below were identified via PubMed.
- DeKosky ST, Williamson JD, Fitzpatrick AL, et al. Ginkgo biloba to prevent dementia: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 2008;300(19):2253-2262. DOI
- Vellas B, Coley N, Ousset PJ, et al. Long-term use of a standardized ginkgo biloba extract to prevent Alzheimer's disease (GuidAge): a randomized placebo-controlled trial. The Lancet Neurology, 2012;11(10):851-859. DOI
- Laws KR, Sweetnam H, Kondel TK. Does ginkgo biloba improve cognition in healthy people? A meta-analysis. Human Psychopharmacology, 2012;27(6):527-533. DOI
- Tan MS, Yu JT, Tan CC, et al. Efficacy and adverse effects of ginkgo biloba in cognitive impairment and dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 2015;43(2):589-603. DOI
- Weinmann S, Roll S, Schwarzbach C, et al. Effects of ginkgo biloba in dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Geriatrics, 2010;10:14. DOI
- Pase MP, Kean J, Sarris J, et al. The effects of bacopa on cognition: a systematic review of randomized controlled clinical trials in humans. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 2012;18(7):647-652. DOI
- Mori K, Inatomi S, Ouchi K, et al. Effects of Yamabushitake mushroom (Hericium erinaceus) on mild cognitive decline: a double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Phytotherapy Research, 2009;23(3):367-372. DOI
- Li IC, Chang HH, Lin CH, et al. Prevention of early-stage Alzheimer's disease by Hericium erinaceus mycelium enriched in erinacine A: a double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 2020;12:155. DOI
- Docherty S, Doughty FL, Smith EF. Acute and chronic effects of Lion's Mane supplementation on cognition, stress and mood in young adults: a double-blind pilot study with parallel groups. Nutrients, 2023;15(22):4842. DOI
- Kuang TA, David P, Kushairi N, et al. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurite growth in HT-22 hippocampal neurons stimulated by Hericium erinaceus and Lignosus rhinocerotis. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, 2026;28(6):89-102. DOI
- Wang LY, Yeh SL, Hsu ST, et al. Erinacine C attenuates Alzheimer's-like pathology: a study in APP/PS1 mice and PC12 cells. Molecules, 2026;31(18):3154. DOI
- Menon A, Jalal A, Arshad Z, et al. Benefits, side effects and uses of Hericium erinaceus as a supplement: a systematic review. Frontiers in Nutrition, 2025;12:1641246. DOI
- Saitsu Y, Nishide A, Kikushima K, et al. Improvement of cognitive functions through oral intake of Hericium erinaceus. Biomedical Research, 2019;40(4):125-131. DOI
- Grozier CD, Alves VA, Killen LG, et al. Four weeks of Hericium erinaceus supplementation do not influence metabolic flexibility or cognition. International Journal of Exercise Science, 2022;15(2):1366-1380. DOI
- Evans C, Kalman D, Goodrich J, et al. A pilot proof-of-concept study on the physiological and cognitive effects of Hericium erinaceus in healthy adults. Nutrients, 2026;18(19):3177. DOI
- La Monica MB, Raub B, Ziegenfuss EJ, et al. Acute effects of natural guayusa tea extracts and Nordic lion's mane on cognitive performance. Nutrients, 2023;15(24):5018. DOI
- Surendran G, Saye J, Binti Mohd Jalil S, et al. Acute effects of a standardized Hericium erinaceus (lion's mane) extract on cognition and mood in healthy young adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Frontiers in Nutrition, 2025;12:1405796. DOI
- Snitz BE, O'Meara ES, Carlson MC, et al. Ginkgo biloba for preventing cognitive decline in older adults: a randomized trial. JAMA, 2009;302(24):2663-2670. DOI
- Birks J, Grimley Evans J. Ginkgo biloba for cognitive impairment and dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2009;2009(1):CD003120. DOI
- Stough C, Lloyd J, Clarke J, et al. Chronic effects of a bacopa (brahmi) extract on cognitive function in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology, 2001;156(4):481-484. DOI
- Roodenrys S, Booth D, Bulzomi S, et al. Chronic effects of brahmi (Bacopa monnieri) on human memory. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2002;27(2):279-281. DOI
- Calabrese C, Gregory WL, Leo M, et al. Effects of a standardized bacopa extract on cognitive performance, anxiety, and depression in older adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 2008;14(6):707-713. DOI
- Morgan A, Stevens J. Does bacopa improve memory in older adults? Results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 2010;16(7):753-759. DOI
- Kongkeaw C, Dilokthornsakul P, Thanarangsarit P, et al. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on the cognitive effects of a bacopa extract. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2014;151(1):528-535. DOI
- Brimson JM, Brimson S, Prasanth MI, et al. Efficacy of bacopa as a nootropic, neuroprotective, or antidepressant supplement: an analysis of available clinical data. Scientific Reports, 2021;11(1):596. DOI
- Tiemtad P, Ingkaninan K, Temkitthawon P, et al. Comparative effects of bacopa and ginkgo biloba on cognitive functions: systematic review and network meta-analysis. Phytomedicine, 2026;153:157915. DOI
- Feng X, Fan S, Wei F. Effect of plant active substances on cognitive function in healthy older adults: systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized trials. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2026;16:1672171. DOI
- Kar A, Panda S, Bharti S. Relative efficacy of three medicinal plant extracts on thyroid hormone concentrations in male mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2002;81(2):281-285. DOI
- Kellermann AJ, Kloft C. Is there a bleeding risk associated with standardized ginkgo biloba extracts? Systematic review and meta-analysis. Pharmacotherapy, 2011;31(5):490-502. DOI
- Mai NTQ, Hieu NV, Ngan TT, et al. Effect of ginkgo biloba drug interactions on bleeding risk and coagulation: a comprehensive analysis. PLoS One, 2025;20(4):e0321804. DOI
- Nakatsugawa M, Takahashi H, Takezawa C, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome induced by Hericium erinaceum (yamabushitake) extract, followed by serum surfactant proteins. Internal Medicine, 2003;42(12):1219-1222. DOI
- Northey JM, Cherbuin N, Pumpa KL, et al. Physical exercise and cognitive function after age 50: systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 2018;52(3):154-160. DOI
- Williamson JD, Pajewski NM, Auchus AP, et al. Effect of intensive versus standard blood pressure control on probable dementia: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 2019;321(6):553-561. DOI
- Lim J, Dinges DF. Meta-analysis of the impact of short-term sleep deprivation on cognitive variables. Psychological Bulletin, 2010;136(3):375-389. DOI
- Lin FR, Pike JR, Albert MS, et al. Hearing intervention versus health education to reduce cognitive decline in older adults with hearing loss in the United States (ACHIEVE): a randomized controlled multicenter trial. The Lancet, 2023;402(10404):786-797. DOI
