Dry mouth, headache, crushing fatigue: the morning after a heavy night out, dehydration seems like the obvious explanation, and electrolytes the logical answer. In a survey of 1,410 students, 89.1% of those who had a hangover cited thirst, but thirst and dry mouth weighed very little in overall discomfort: less than 5% of the variance explained.
This guide brings together studies identified via PubMed, including null results: alcohol's effect on urine, blood tests, tested remedies, helpful steps, the role of electrolytes, medications to avoid, and signs that require calling emergency services. The role of sodium, potassium, and magnesium is detailed in our electrolytes guide. Let's be clear from the start: the only proven prevention remains drinking less.
Dehydration : alcohol causes increased urination for a few hours, especially wine and spirits, then the body retains water during the night. In one trial, blood sodium had returned to baseline upon waking, despite the hangover, and blood electrolytes do not correlate with symptom severity. About one liter of extra water during the evening did not reduce symptoms in a randomized trial.
What matters : the amount of alcohol, intoxication, vomiting, shortened sleep, and inflammation. No tested remedy showed benefit beyond very low levels of evidence. Eating before drinking, pacing yourself, replacing alcoholic drinks with water, and stopping earlier are concrete levers. Electrolytes are useful after vomiting or diarrhea, and severe intoxication requires emergency care.
- Hangover: what are we talking about?
- Does alcohol really cause water loss?
- Sodium, potassium: what blood tests show
- Dehydration and hangover: a weaker link than we think
- Inflammation, sleep, vomiting: the most solid leads
- Remedies and supplements: the trial results summary
- What really reduces symptoms
- Electrolytes: when they make sense
- Regular consumption: a medical concern
- Alcohol and medications: combinations to avoid
- Intoxication and precautions: when to call emergency services
- Frequently Asked Questions
Hangover: What Are We Talking About?
Researchers define a hangover as the set of physical and mental symptoms that follow an episode of alcohol consumption and begin when blood alcohol levels return to near zero. Its symptoms can persist for up to 24 hours and impact both work and driving, note the authors of a trial published in 2024.
It is common. In three crossover trials involving 172 professional sailors and students, a research-supervised evening resulting in an average breath alcohol level of 0.115%, caused a hangover in 76% of participants, regardless of beverage type. The authors estimate that 25 to 30% of drinkers could be resistant to it, a fragile concept: in a survey of 1,198 people, the proportion claiming to be spared decreased rapidly as alcohol consumption increased.
Among 47 symptoms rated 0 to 10, fatigue (95.5%) and thirst (89.1%) were most frequent among the 791 students who had a hangover the previous month. Statistical analysis ranked sleepiness first (28.8% of explained variance), ahead of cognitive impairment (5.9%). The group related to water balance, thirst and dry mouth, accounted for less than 5%.
Penning R, McKinney A, Verster JC. Alcohol Alcohol 2012;47(3):248-252. DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/ags029
Does Alcohol Really Cause Water Loss?
In 7 healthy men who consumed 1.5 g of alcohol per kilogram of body weight over 6 hours, production of dilute urine resulted in a net loss of 0.9 kg of water in 2 hours. Vasopressin, the hormone that causes the kidneys to retain water, initially decreased, then rose significantly 6 and 12 hours later; blood sodium increased by a maximum of 4%.
Eight healthy men consumed 1.2 g of alcohol per kilogram between 6 and 9 p.m., or the same volume of fruit juice in another session. Alcohol increased urination during the first 3 hours, then caused water retention from midnight to 6 a.m. The next morning, after drinking 20 ml of water per kilogram in 15 minutes, they retained 44%, compared to 12% after the fruit juice evening.
Taivainen H, Laitinen K, Tähtelä R, et al. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1995;19(3):759-762. DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1995.tb01579.x
For 70 kg, 1.2 g per kilogram represents approximately 84 g of alcohol, or 8 drinks of 10 g (editorial calculation). In 19 men aged 60 to 75, 30 g of alcohol taken at lunch as wine or spirits slightly increased urination over 4 hours, not over 24 hours; 5% beer did not differ from its non-alcoholic version. This trial, conducted without blinding by a team linked to the brewing industry, examined a moderate amount. In a trial of 72 men, each comparing water to three beverages among 13, one liter of pale ale did not produce more urine than one liter of water over 4 hours. Finally, in 12 men dehydrated the day before by exercise in heat, one liter of 4% beer did not increase urination significantly more than the same non-alcoholic beer (261 vs. 174 ml), whereas the difference was clear when they were well hydrated (1,279 vs. 1,121 ml): the diuretic effect appears attenuated when the body is already lacking water.
| Beverage and Protocol | Effect on Urination | Study |
|---|---|---|
| 1.5 g of alcohol per kilogram over 6 hours, 7 men | Net loss of 0.9 kg of water in 2 hours | Leppäluoto, 1992 |
| 1.2 g of alcohol per kilogram over 3 hours, 8 men | More urination for 3 hours, then water retention at night | Taivainen, 1995 |
| 30 g of alcohol in wine or spirits, men aged 60 to 75 | Slight increase over 4 hours, none over 24 hours | Polhuis, 2017 |
| 30 g of alcohol in 5% beer, same participants | No difference with non-alcoholic beer | Polhuis, 2017 |
| 1 liter of blonde beer, trial in 72 well-hydrated men | No more urine than water over 4 hours | Maughan, 2016 |
| 1 liter of 4% beer, 12 dehydrated men | No significant difference with non-alcoholic beer | Hobson and Maughan, 2010 |
Sodium, potassium: what blood tests show
A 2010 review compiled human studies that analyzed the blood and urine of drinkers: electrolytes, hormones, fatty acids, triglycerides, lactate, ketone bodies, cortisol and glucose were not significantly correlated with hangover severity, nor were dehydration markers like vasopressin.
Forty healthy medical students drank an average of 316 ml of 40% gin in one and a half hours, approximately 100 g of alcohol, after two slices of pizza. Their blood sodium rose from approximately 140 to 143 mmol per liter immediately after the evening, remaining within normal values, then returned to baseline the next morning, while hangover symptoms were present. N-acetylcysteine, taken twice at 1.2 g each, changed neither sodium levels nor symptoms.
Podobnik B, Demšar L, Šarc L, et al. Toxics 2024;12(8):585. DOI: 10.3390/toxics12080585
A 1976 trial illustrates the limitation of reasoning that consists of correcting a value to relieve a symptom. In 109 men who drank 1.75 g of alcohol per kilogram after 10 hours of fasting, fructose or glucose reduced the disturbances measured during a hangover (low blood sugar, elevated lactate and ketone bodies, overly acidic blood) without reducing either intoxication or the hangover. For the authors, a hangover is not directly related to these metabolic effects.
A blood parameter that changes after an evening is not necessarily the cause of symptoms: with sugars, values improve and discomfort remains. This is what electrolytes lack: we have identified no trial showing that adding them relieves a hangover.
Dehydration and hangover: a weaker link than believed
A 2024 review on thirst, water consumed and hangover severity concludes that dehydration and hangover occur at the same time, but independently. Dehydration effects were most often mild and brief, whereas the hangover persisted. In surveys, drinking water during or immediately after alcohol consumption had only a modest effect on the next day's symptoms, and the amount of water consumed during the hangover was linked neither to symptom progression nor to thirst progression.
Thirteen healthy men drank 15% sake at a rate of 1.3 g of alcohol per kilogram (approximately 750 ml) in one hour, with or without 15 ml of water per kilogram, approximately 1.1 liters of extra water. Water neither modified the alcohol nor the acetaldehyde measured in exhaled air, nor facial flushing, headaches, nausea, drowsiness or concentration the next day. Psychomotor tests were significantly worse immediately after the evening with water, then slightly better 7 to 8 hours later, with no significant difference.
Imai H, Kushio S, Matsuura K, et al. Front Pharmacol 2026;17:1852528. DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2026.1852528
This trial has limitations: only 13 men, no blinding, several authors employed by the sake manufacturer used, and bloating with nearly 1.8 liters of liquid per hour. For the authors, water between drinks owes its reputation mainly to the fact that it limits, in real life, the quantity and pace of alcohol consumption.
On the nutrition side, a study in 13 hangover-prone drinkers who had consumed an average of 11.3 drinks found no significant association between symptom severity and intakes of salt, sodium, potassium or magnesium. Only dietary zinc and niacin were associated with less severe symptoms, an association in a very small sample that does not prove an effect.
Inflammation, sleep, vomiting: the most solid leads
The inflammatory response. In 20 men who drank 1.5 g of alcohol per kilogram, the production of several inflammation messengers, interleukins 10 and 12 and interferon gamma, was increased 13 hours later, when blood alcohol had returned to zero. In two studies reanalyzed in 2020, hangover severity increased with blood levels of interleukin 6, TNF alpha and C-reactive protein, as well as with oxidative stress markers. The 2010 review already judged this link with immunity as the most convincing lead.
Sleep. In 95 young adults who drank to a blood alcohol level of approximately 0.11% on breath, alcohol reduced sleep efficiency and REM sleep and lengthened waking time, effects linked to hangover; the next day, tests requiring sustained attention and speed were performed less well. Bourbon, rich in congeners from fermentation and aging, produced a more marked hangover than vodka. In 337 students followed over 2,976 days, drinking later in the night was associated with shorter sleep and more hangovers.
Ninety adults aged 19 to 40, half of them women, drank beer then wine, wine then beer, or a single type of beverage, to a blood alcohol level of at least 0.11% on breath. Neither the order nor the type of beverage significantly modified hangover intensity. The two factors most predictive of its severity were the feeling of intoxication and vomiting.
Köchling J, Geis B, Wirth S, Hensel KO. Am J Clin Nutr 2019;109(2):345-352. DOI : 10.1093/ajcn/nqy309
Remedies and supplements: a review of trials
A 2005 review included 8 randomized trials on 8 interventions, including medications, sugars, and plants such as artichoke or prickly pear. Only tolfenamide acid, borage, and a yeast-based preparation showed significant differences, and the authors concluded that the most effective way to avoid a hangover remains abstinence or moderation.
Twenty-one trials versus placebo, totaling 386 participants, each tested a different intervention, which prevented any meta-analysis. All efficacy results were judged to be of very low quality. A few isolated trials report a greater reduction in symptom scores than with placebo: 42.5% versus 19.0% with clove extract, 84.0% versus 50.0% with tolfenamide acid, 34.1% versus 16.2% with pyritinol, and 41.5% versus 33.3% with Korean pear juice.
Roberts E, Smith R, Hotopf M, Drummond C. Addiction 2022;117(8):2157-2167. DOI : 10.1111/add.15786
Null trials count equally: N-acetylcysteine changed nothing in 40 students, sugars in 109 men, added water in 13 men. A double-blind trial in 214 adults, partly supported by the manufacturer who supplied the beverages, tested a drink combining sodium, potassium, magnesium, zinc, and B vitamins, taken before and after the evening: it performed no better than a sugared placebo drink. A third group, which received the same minerals and vitamins with plant extracts, noted compared to placebo a lower intensity of 4 symptoms out of 47: headaches (34% less, p = 0.033), nausea (42%, p = 0.036), indifference (27%, p = 0.037), and agitation (41%, p = 0.027). Its overall hangover score (83.38 versus 96.36) did not differ significantly (p = 0.21), and the authors attributed these effects to the plant extracts.
| Intervention | Result on hangover | Level of evidence (editorial assessment) |
|---|---|---|
| Electrolytes and vitamins, in beverage form | No better than a sugared placebo | Low: one trial of 214 adults, doses not published |
| Additional water during the evening, approximately 1.1 liters | No effect on symptoms | Low: one trial of 13 men, unblinded |
| Fructose or glucose | Reduce blood disturbances, not symptoms | Low: one trial of 109 men, older study |
| N-acetylcysteine, 1.2 g twice | No effect on symptoms | Low: one trial of 40 students |
| Tolfenamide acid, an anti-inflammatory | Reduction in symptoms of 84.0% versus 50.0% | Very low: one trial only |
| Magnesium | No trial of magnesium alone | Absent |
Magnesium is often mentioned because the kidneys of regular heavy alcohol consumers lose more of it. On its own, it has never been tested against hangovers, and combined with other minerals and vitamins, it changed nothing in the trial of 214 adults. During withdrawal, a review of 4 trials (317 people) judges the data insufficient, and a 2023 randomized trial in 98 hospitalized patients found no difference compared to placebo, with 426.6 mg of magnesium per day, in lactate form, for up to 15 days. Magnesium retains its place in daily intake, not as a morning-after remedy.
Our Electrolytes also provide 60 mg of magnesium per 2 tablets. If you take both products, you're combining two sources of magnesium: in case of chronic illness, treatment, or magnesium sensitivity, seek medical advice. Pregnancy and breastfeeding: Electrolytes are not recommended, Magnesium+ requires professional health advice. Magnesium+ is not recommended for children under 3 years old.
What really reduces symptoms
No product neutralizes alcohol. What reduces hangovers in studies comes down to the way you drink, and first and foremost, the quantity.
The quantity. The higher the alcohol level rises, the greater the proportion of drinkers who experience a hangover. The feeling of intoxication is, even more than blood alcohol level, the factor most closely linked to severity: drinking significantly beyond your usual habits exposes you to a hangover, even when blood alcohol remains moderate in absolute terms.
The meal. In 16 adults, a light meal consumed before drinking lowered the peak alcohol level from 30.5 to 21.4 µg per 100 ml of exhaled air on average, about 30% less (editorial calculation), and only part of the expected alcohol entered the bloodstream: 66% in women, 71% in men, compared to almost complete absorption on an empty stomach or after a bag of chips. Its effect on hangovers was not measured.
Water between drinks. It quenches thirst, but showed no benefit when alcohol quantity remained the same. Its value lies in slowing the pace and replacing alcoholic drinks. Keeping water within reach helps, for example in our NP Insulated Water Bottle 500 ml stainless steel double-walled.
The time. Stopping earlier gives your body time to eliminate alcohol before waking and preserves sleep. The liver eliminates alcohol at a fairly constant rate, which water does not change in the cited study, as detailed in our article on how long alcohol stays in your body.
The practical advice below is based on these studies. It reduces the risk, it does not eliminate it, and does not allow you to drink more without consequences.
Electrolytes: when they make sense
Electrolytes regain relevance when there are actual losses: repeated vomiting or diarrhea. Yet vomiting is one of the two factors most closely linked to hangover severity. Medicine then uses oral rehydration solutions; the so-called reduced-osmolarity formula contains 75 mmol of sodium and 75 mmol of glucose per liter. In 190 boys aged 1 to 24 months hospitalized for diarrhea, it reduced stool volume by 36% during rehydration compared to a more concentrated formula, with fewer vomiting episodes. Persistent vomiting, inability to retain fluids, infrequent and dark urine, or severe weakness warrant medical advice.
In this same study, in 72 well-hydrated and fasting men, one liter of oral rehydration solution was better retained than water (hydration index of 1.54 at 2 hours), as was milk (1.50 to 1.58); a sports drink, pale ale, coffee, or tea performed no better than water. These results do not address hangovers.
Our Electrolytes provide 300 mg of sodium per tablet, or approximately 13 mmol. In 200 ml of water, the minimum indicated amount, one tablet gives approximately 65 mmol of sodium per liter, and approximately 26 mmol in 500 ml. Their glucose, 0.5 g per tablet, provides approximately 2.5 g per liter in 200 ml, compared to 13.5 g in the rehydration solution studied. When diluted minimally, they therefore approach it in sodium content, but not in glucose, and no trial has tested them, neither against hangovers nor after vomiting. We recommend them for sports sessions, intense heat, and travel.
| Reference (editorial calculations) | Sodium | Glucose |
|---|---|---|
| Oral rehydration solution with reduced osmolarity | 75 mmol per liter | 75 mmol per liter, or 13.5 g |
| Electrolytes : 1 tablet in 200 ml | Approximately 65 mmol per liter | Approximately 2.5 g per liter |
| Electrolytes : 1 tablet in 500 ml | Approximately 26 mmol per liter | Approximately 1 g per liter |
| Electrolytes : 2 tablets, maximum per day | 600 mg, or 1.5 g of salt | 1 g total |
Conversions are based on 23 mg per mmol of sodium and 180 mg per mmol of glucose. The day after an evening without vomiting, nothing demonstrates that adding sodium relieves symptoms: in the 2024 trial, blood sodium had already returned to its baseline level upon waking. Dissolved in water, one tablet remains a beverage, not a hangover cure.
Regular consumption: a medical concern
The picture changes for people who drink heavily and regularly. A 2021 meta-analysis found low blood magnesium in 44.4% of people with chronic alcohol use disorder (12 studies, 538 patients), reduced muscle magnesium by 16%, and kidneys that abnormally lose magnesium. These patients often present with other imbalances: potassium, sodium, calcium, or phosphorus that are too low, blood pH disorders. Kidney function and magnesium normalize approximately 4 weeks after stopping alcohol.
Sodium can also drop. In some heavy beer drinkers who eat very little, salt and protein intake become so low that the kidneys no longer eliminate excess water: blood sodium becomes diluted. This beer-related polydipsia is rare but serious, and requires medical intervention.
The response is then medical: blood test, monitoring, and if necessary, support to reduce or stop alcohol consumption. Frequent hangovers are a signal to take seriously: speak with your doctor or a specialized addiction service.
Alcohol and medications: combinations to avoid
A review dedicated to interactions between alcohol and medications explicitly mentions people who take a painkiller after drinking to prevent a hangover. Alcohol modifies how the liver breaks down certain medications and adds its sedative effects to those of other substances, even after a single evening. If in doubt, ask your pharmacist for advice.
Acetaminophen (Paracetamol) : in people who drink heavily or who are fasting, liver damage has been reported as low as 2 to 4 g per day; never exceed the indicated doses and be wary of cold medications that also contain it. Aspirin and anti-inflammatory drugs (ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac): alcohol increases the risk of stomach irritation and bleeding, and aspirin can raise blood alcohol levels. Benzodiazepines, barbiturates, opioids, sedating antihistamines : their sedative effects add to those of alcohol, and combining with opioids can reduce cough and breathing to the point of endangering life. Metronidazole and certain antibiotics : hot flushes, drop in blood pressure and accelerated heart rate. Diabetes treated with insulin or sulfonylureas : risk of hypoglycemia if consumed on an empty stomach. Warfarin : modified anticoagulant effect, with a bleeding risk.
Intoxication and precautions: when to call emergency services
At high doses, medical reviews describe disruptions to the body's automatic functions, slowed breathing, coma and cardiac arrest. In emergency departments, severe cases may require intravenous infusions and correction of hypoglycemia, low blood pressure, hypothermia and electrolyte imbalances. Adolescents are more at risk, as their liver eliminates alcohol less efficiently, and their complications are more frequent and more serious.
If the person does not wake up or does not respond, breathes slowly, irregularly or with pauses, vomits while drowsy or unconscious, has cold, pale or bluish skin, has convulsions or seems deeply confused. While waiting for emergency services (first aid advice): place them on their side to prevent choking from vomiting, cover them, stay by their side, do not give them anything to drink or eat and do not let them sleep alone.
High blood pressure, kidneys, heart. In a meta-analysis of 34 trials involving 3,230 participants, reducing salt by approximately 4.4 g per day for at least 4 weeks lowered systolic blood pressure by 4.18 mmHg on average, and by 5.39 mmHg in people with high blood pressure. Our Electrolytes provide 1.5 g of salt per 2 tablets: in case of a low-salt diet, medical treatment, including high blood pressure, or kidney or heart problems, seek professional medical advice. They contain polyols, which have a laxative effect in excess, and are limited to 2 tablets per day. Our article on foods that lower blood pressure details the role of salt and potassium.
Pregnancy and breastfeeding. Exposure to alcohol during pregnancy can cause facial abnormalities, growth retardation, neurological and cognitive disorders and malformations in the child; one review estimates the frequency of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders at 0.77% worldwide and 2 to 5% in Europe and North America. During pregnancy, alcohol should be completely avoided. Our Electrolytes are not recommended for pregnant or breastfeeding women.
Children and adolescents. In a young child, any alcohol ingestion warrants calling 15 without delay; an adolescent who has drunk must be closely monitored, and any warning sign also warrants calling. Electrolytes should be kept out of reach of young children; they may contain traces of gluten, soy and milk.
Effervescent tablets with lime flavor : 600 mg of sodium, 300 mg of potassium, 120 mg of chloride, 60 mg of magnesium and 80 mg of vitamin C per 2 tablets, with 1 g of sugars. One tablet in at least 200 ml of water, maximum 2 per day, for sports sessions, high heat or travel. A tube of 20 tablets covers 10 days and fits easily in a sports bag.
View ElectrolytesTo find out how long it takes for alcohol to leave the body, read our article on alcohol elimination time.
Frequently asked questions
Do electrolytes help with hangover?
In the only identified trial, in 214 adults, an electrolyte and vitamin drink performed no better than a sugared placebo. In a 2024 trial, blood sodium had returned to its baseline level upon waking, and blood electrolytes do not follow the severity of symptoms. They mainly make sense after vomiting or diarrhea.
Is hangover due to dehydration?
Only in part. Alcohol causes urination for a few hours, then the body retains water overnight. A 2024 review concludes that dehydration and hangover occur together but independently: dehydration is most often mild and brief, while hangover lasts longer.
What should you drink for a hangover?
Water according to thirst, with a meal. No drink has shown a solid effect, and the juices or extracts tested only reach very low levels of evidence. After vomiting, an oral rehydration solution is more appropriate.
Does drinking water between drinks prevent a hangover?
Not if the amount of alcohol remains the same: in a trial with 13 men, approximately 1.1 liters of water added during the evening did not change the next day's symptoms. Water helps mainly when it replaces glasses of alcohol.
Should you drink a lot of water before bed?
One glass according to thirst is enough. In one trial, the body was already retaining water overnight and kept 44% of the water consumed upon waking, compared to 12% without alcohol the previous evening. Nothing shows that a large volume of water at bedtime prevents a hangover.
How long does a hangover last?
It begins when blood alcohol levels return to zero and can persist for up to 24 hours. Attention and reaction time may remain impaired: avoid driving as long as you feel diminished.
Does magnesium help with hangovers?
No trial has tested it alone against hangovers. In regular heavy drinkers, blood magnesium is often low, but two studies on withdrawal showed no benefit from supplementation.
Can you take paracetamol or ibuprofen for a hangover?
With caution and without exceeding doses. In people who drink heavily or are fasting, liver damage has been described with paracetamol from 2 to 4 g per day, and alcohol increases the risk of stomach bleeding with anti-inflammatory drugs. Ask your pharmacist for advice.
Does mixing alcohols cause a worse hangover?
No: in a trial of 90 adults, beer then wine or wine then beer did not produce significantly different hangovers. It is the quantity of alcohol, the feeling of intoxication, and vomiting that matter.
Does eating before drinking reduce hangovers?
In a trial of 16 adults, a light meal taken before drinking lowered the peak alcohol level by approximately 30%, according to our calculation. Its effect on hangovers was not measured.
Are isotonic drinks useful after an evening out?
In a trial of 72 well-hydrated men, a sports drink was not retained better than water, unlike an oral rehydration solution and milk. No trial has tested them against hangovers.
When should you call emergency services after drinking?
Call 15 or 112 if the person does not wake up, breathes slowly or irregularly, vomits while drowsy, has cold, pale, or bluish skin, has convulsions, or appears very confused. In the meantime, place them on their side, cover them, and stay at their side.
Sources
The studies cited below were identified via PubMed.
- Penning R, McKinney A, Verster JC. Hangover symptoms and their contribution to overall hangover severity. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 2012;47(3):248-252. DOI
- Podobnik B, Demšar L, Šarc L, et al. N-acetylcysteine ineffective for relieving hangovers after heavy alcohol consumption: a clinical study. Toxics, 2024;12(8):585. DOI
- Howland J, Rohsenow DJ, Allensworth-Davies D, et al. Frequency and severity of the morning hangover following moderate alcohol intoxication. Addiction, 2008;103(5):758-765. DOI
- Terpstra C, Scholey A, Verster JC, Benson S. Frequency of hangover resistance according to two methods of calculating estimated blood alcohol level. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 2020;9(9):2823. DOI
- Leppäluoto J, Vuolteenaho O, Arjamaa O, Ruskoaho H. Atrial natriuretic peptide and plasma vasopressin after ethanol ingestion in humans. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 1992;144(2):121-127. DOI
- Taivainen H, Laitinen K, Tähtelä R, et al. Role of plasma vasopressin in variations of fluid balance during acute alcohol intoxication. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 1995;19(3):759-762. DOI
- Polhuis KCMM, Wijnen AHC, Sierksma A, et al. Diuretic effect of weak and strong alcoholic beverages in older men: a randomized crossover trial with controlled diet. Nutrients, 2017;9(7):660. DOI
- Maughan RJ, Watson P, Cordery PA, et al. Randomized trial evaluating the effect of different beverages on hydration status: development of a beverage hydration index. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2016;103(3):717-723. DOI
- Hobson RM, Maughan RJ. Hydration status and diuretic effect of a small dose of alcohol. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 2010;45(4):366-373. DOI
- Penning R, van Nuland M, Fliervoet LA, et al. The mechanisms of hangover. Current Drug Abuse Reviews, 2010;3(2):68-75. DOI
- Ylikahri RH, Leino T, Huttunen MO, et al. Effects of fructose and glucose on metabolic changes induced by ethanol and on the intensity of intoxication and hangover. European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 1976;6(1):93-102. DOI
- Mackus M, Stock AK, Garssen J, et al. Hangover and dehydration revisited: the effect of water to prevent or alleviate hangover. Alcohol, 2024;121:9-18. DOI
- Imai H, Kushio S, Matsuura K, et al. Drinking water during alcohol consumption does not relieve hangover symptoms. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2026;17:1852528. DOI
- Verster JC, Vermeulen SA, van de Loo AJAE, et al. Dietary nutrient intake, alcohol metabolism and hangover severity. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 2019;8(9):1316. DOI
- Kim DJ, Kim W, Yoon SJ, et al. Effects of hangover on cytokine production in healthy subjects. Alcohol, 2003;31(3):167-170. DOI
- van de Loo AJAE, Mackus M, Kwon O, et al. The inflammatory response to alcohol consumption and its role in hangover. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 2020;9(7):2081. DOI
- Rohsenow DJ, Howland J, Arnedt JT, et al. Intoxication from bourbon or vodka: Effects on hangover, sleep, and next-day neurocognitive performance in young adults. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 2010;34(3):509-518. DOI
- Muzumdar N, Jackson KM, Buckman JF, et al. Understanding the relationship between alcohol, sleep, and hangover in college students using daily diary methods. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 2025;247:173910. DOI
- Köchling J, Geis B, Wirth S, Hensel KO. Grain or grape, but never both? A multi-arm randomized crossover trial on beer and wine. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2019;109(2):345-352. DOI
- Pittler MH, Verster JC, Ernst E. Interventions for preventing or treating hangover: Systematic review of randomized controlled trials. BMJ, 2005;331(7531):1515-1518. DOI
- Roberts E, Smith R, Hotopf M, Drummond C. Efficacy and tolerability of pharmacologically active interventions for hangover symptoms: Systematic review of randomized controlled trials versus placebo. Addiction, 2022;117(8):2157-2167. DOI
- Lieb B, Schmitt P. Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of a medical food and dietary supplement against hangover symptoms. BMJ Nutrition, Prevention & Health, 2020;3(1):31-39. DOI
- Vanoni FO, Milani GP, Agostoni C, et al. Magnesium metabolism in chronic alcohol use disorder: Meta-analysis and systematic review. Nutrients, 2021;13(6):1959. DOI
- Sarai M, Tejani AM, Chan AHW, et al. Magnesium in alcohol withdrawal. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2013;2013(6):CD008358. DOI
- Airagnes G, Valter R, Ducoutumany G, et al. Magnesium in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome: A multicenter randomized controlled trial. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 2023;58(3):329-335. DOI
- Verster JC, Kruisselbrink LD, Slot KA, et al. Hangover susceptibility: Questioning the blood alcohol concentration threshold of 0.11%. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 2020;9(1):179. DOI
- Sadler DW, Fox J. Intra- and inter-individual variations in alcohol pharmacokinetics in expired air: effect of diet on absorption. Science and Justice, 2011;51(1):3-9. DOI
- Santosham M, Fayad I, Abu Zikri M, et al. Double-blind clinical trial comparing [international standard] oral rehydration solution to a reduced-osmolarity solution containing equal amounts of sodium and glucose. The Journal of Pediatrics, 1996;128(1):45-51. DOI
- Joshi R, Chou SY. Beer potomania: insights into the progressive development of hyponatremia. Cureus, 2018;10(7):e3024. DOI
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- Mirijello A, Sestito L, Antonelli M, et al. Identification and management of acute alcohol intoxication. European Journal of Internal Medicine, 2023;108:1-8. DOI
- Piccioni A, Tarli C, Cardone S, et al. Role of first aid in the management of acute alcohol intoxication: a narrative review. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 2020;24(17):9121-9128. DOI
- He FJ, Li J, MacGregor GA. Effect of modest and sustained salt reduction on blood pressure: systematic [collaborative] review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. BMJ, 2013;346:f1325. DOI
- Wozniak JR, Riley EP, Charness ME. Clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. The Lancet Neurology, 2019;18(8):760-770. DOI
