Evening primrose and borage have little in common botanically: one is a yellow flower from North America, the other a Mediterranean plant with blue flowers. What unites them in the same capsule comes down to a single molecule, and it is rare:gamma-linolenic acid, GLA. Neither olive oil, nor sunflower oil, nor walnuts provide it. The body produces it itself, but through a slow enzyme that constitutes the bottleneck of the entire chain.
This article examines what the trials actually measured. A randomized trial of 12 weeks on skin with instrumental measurements of hydration and transepidermal water loss, a meta-analysis of 13 trials on breast comfort, a study on 1,015 patients that explains why some women respond and others don't, menopause data, and a Cochrane review whose conclusion on eczema is clear. Including dosages, timing of intake, and real precautions.
The molecule. GLA bypasses the slowest step in omega-6 metabolism, delta-6-desaturase, and becomes DGLA, a precursor of anti-inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandin E1. Borage is the most concentrated plant source, evening primrose the most studied. Skin, the best measured domain. Randomized 12-week trial with borage oil: skin hydration significantly increased, insensible water loss reduced by approximately 10% as early as week six, roughness and desquamation significantly decreased, redness after irritation reduced. Placebo showed no change.
Breast comfort. Meta-analysis of 13 trials and 1,752 patients: evening primrose performs equally with placebo, but also with topical NSAIDs, danazol, and vitamin E, with no additional side effects. A study on 1,015 patients places it above acetaminophen and identifies what blocks the response: iron deficiency and hypothyroidism. Menopause. Positive trials, but on combinations. Eczema. Cochrane 2013, 27 trials: no. Precautions: pregnancy, breastfeeding, anticoagulants.
- GLA, a molecule that diet does not provide
- Skin: the 12-week trial and its measurements
- Breast comfort: what the meta-analysis really shows
- Why some women don't respond
- Cycle and menopause: the honest assessment
- What the trials don't show
- Evening primrose or borage: the difference
- Dosage, timing and duration
- Safety and precautions
- Frequently asked questions
GLA, a molecule that diet does not provide
The body makes GLA itself. It starts fromlinoleic acid, the abundant omega-6 in sunflower, corn and grapeseed oils, and transforms it through an enzyme called delta-6-desaturase. This step is the rate-limiting step of the entire chain. The GLA obtained is then extended to DGLA, which is the tipping point of the system: it can produce anti-inflammatory mediators like prostaglandin E1, or be converted to arachidonic acid, a precursor of pro-inflammatory mediators.
A 2023 review in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences precisely describes this crossroads: the ratio of arachidonic acid to DGLA is likely a critical factor in the body's inflammatory processes, and a deficiency in delta-6 or delta-5-desaturase activity could contribute to triggering several conditions. Several situations are characterized by abnormally low DGLA levels. A Japanese dermatology review notes that serum GLA and DGLA levels are low in patients with atopic dermatitis.
Eating more sunflower oil does not reliably increase GLA, since conversion depends on an enzyme whose activity varies from person to person and decreases with age. Evening primrose and borage seeds are among the very rare food sources that provide GLA already formed. This is the logic behind supplementation: entering the chain after the slow step, just as is done elsewhere with DHA from omega-3s rather than with its plant precursor.
Skin: the 12-week trial and its measurements
Women received borage oil, flaxseed oil, or placebo containing medium-chain fatty acids for 12 weeks at a rate of 2.2 g total fatty acids per day. In the borage group, plasma GLA increased. Following controlled skin irritation with nicotinate, redness and blood flow were decreased compared to baseline. Skin hydration was significantly increased at 12 weeks, and insensible water loss reduced by approximately 10% from 6 weeks of supplementation onward. Live skin surface assessment showed a significant reduction in roughness and desquamation. With the exception of hydration, none of these parameters were modified in the placebo group.
From Spirt S, Stahl W, Tronnier H, et al. Br J Nutr 2009;101(3):440-445. DOI: 10.1017/S0007114508020321
What makes this trial interesting lies in the nature of the measurements. Insensible water loss is the reference marker for skin barrier integrity in experimental dermatology: it is measured by device, not by questionnaire. Roughness and desquamation were evaluated by surface imaging. In other words, these are not reported impressions but physical parameters, and they move in the right direction while placebo remains stable.
The mechanism is consistent with what we know about skin. The stratum corneum functions like a wall whose cells are bricks and lipids are mortar: ceramides, cholesterol, and free fatty acids. Essential fatty acids are structural components of this cement. A dermocosmetic review published in 2022 in the International Journal of Cosmetic Science concludes that evening primrose oil is an effective ingredient for strengthening stratum corneum integrity, its recovery, and its lipid ratio. And the 2024 systematic review on evening primrose oil notes that in healthy volunteers, while no significant effects appear on epidermal atrophy, positive effects are indeed obtained on hydration and barrier function.
This is the terrain of skin that feels tight, that peels in patches during winter, that remains dry despite creams. Not that of a dermatological pathology. And the time scale is that of skin: the first measured effects appear at six weeks, full effects at twelve. A cream acts on the surface and immediately; a lipid intake acts in the manufacture of subsequent cells. The two accumulate rather than compete.
Breast comfort: what the meta-analysis really says
Thirteen randomized trials totaling 1,752 patients were included. Evening primrose oil shows no difference in reducing breast pain compared to topical NSAIDs, danazol, or vitamin E. The number of patients obtaining relief was not different from that observed under placebo or other treatments. Evening primrose oil does not increase adverse effects such as nausea, abdominal bloating, headaches, or dizziness, nor weight gain or taste alteration, compared to placebo or other treatments. The authors conclude that it is a safe treatment with efficacy similar to placebo, topical NSAIDs, danazol, or vitamin E for pain control.
Ahmad Adni LL, Norhayati MN, Mohd Rosli RR, Muhammad J. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021;18(12):6295. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18126295
This conclusion deserves to be read in full rather than summarized one way or another. It says two things simultaneously. First, that on this indication, evening primrose does not stand out clearly from placebo, which must be stated. Second, that it matches danazol, a prescription medication, and topical NSAIDs, while maintaining a tolerability profile consistent with a dietary oil. Danazol is effective for mastalgia but its use is limited by androgenic effects. Two treatments equivalent in efficacy are not equivalent in constraints.
One thousand fifteen patients aged 14 to 82 followed at a breast clinic received either evening primrose oil at 1,300 mg twice daily or acetaminophen at 500 mg twice daily, with pain assessment on visual analog scale at admission, 2 weeks, and 6 weeks. The therapeutic efficacy of evening primrose oil on mastalgia was significantly superior to that of acetaminophen. Adverse effects reported were rare and showed no statistical difference between groups.
Balci FL, Uras C, Feldman S. Ann Surg Oncol 2020;27(12):4844-4852. DOI: 10.1245/s10434-020-08949-x
This is not a randomized, double-blind trial, and that matters in the hierarchy of evidence. But the sample size is substantial for this topic, the follow-up is clinical, and the study provides something the randomized trials had not sought: an explanation of non-responders.
Why some women do not respond
The same team analyzed the factors that modify evening primrose oil efficacy in these 1,015 patients. Five emerged significantly: hormone replacement therapy, levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device, the iron deficiency, theestablished hypothyroidism and Hashimoto's thyroiditis. And the decisive point: in patients who did not respond to evening primrose oil, correcting iron or thyroid hormone effectively treated breast pain.
A lack of results after two or three months is not necessarily a sign of an ineffective product: it is often a sign of underlying factors to explore. Low ferritin and a sluggish thyroid are common in women of reproductive age, often silent, and both are among the identified factors. Two simple blood tests settle the question, and our article on iron deficiency details the target thresholds.
Cycle and menopause: the honest assessment
Premenstrual syndrome as a whole
For overall PMS, the most rigorous trial we have is outdated and disappointing. A randomized, double-blind crossover trial in 38 women, followed over six cycles, measured ten premenstrual symptoms. Scores improved, but identically under evening primrose oil and placebo, across all symptom categories—psychological as well as breast-related or water retention. The authors conclude that the improvement observed in these women with moderate PMS was solely due to placebo effect. A 2021 review of plants used in gynecology actually places vitex ahead of evening primrose oil for this specific indication, with more solid data.
Menopause
One hundred and one postmenopausal women aged 45 to 60 received for 12 weeks either a combination of soy isoflavones, black cohosh, vitex, and evening primrose oil extract, or placebo. Supplementation produced a statistically significant reduction in hot flashes and night sweats, sleep disturbances, depressed mood, and irritability symptoms compared to the placebo group. Hormone levels were unchanged, but C-reactive protein was significantly lowered, as were LDL and triglycerides compared to baseline. No adverse effects were reported.
Rattanatantikul T, Maiprasert M, Sugkraroek P, Bumrungpert A. J Diet Suppl 2020;19(2):168-183. DOI: 10.1080/19390211.2020.1853648
A second open-label study in 156 women with a formula containing evening primrose oil, hops, saffron, tryptophan, and several B vitamins reported a 48% reduction in hot flashes at 12 weeks, 46% reduction in sleep disturbances, and 45% reduction in depressed mood on the MRS scale. The result is clear-cut, but the absence of a placebo group in an indication where placebo effect is notoriously strong means it should be read as an observation, not a demonstration.
The honest conclusion is therefore this: on menopause, evening primrose oil appears in formulas that work, without being able to isolate its individual contribution. The actives whose effects are best established individually in this indication remain black cohosh and red clover. Our menopause guide and our article on hot flashes sort this out by level of evidence.
What the trials do not show
A 2013 Cochrane review grouped 27 trials and 1,596 participants, 19 on evening primrose oil and 8 on borage oil. Neither one, taken orally, improves overall eczema symptoms more than placebo, whether assessed by participants or physicians. The authors go further: with narrow confidence intervals, new studies on this subject would be difficult to justify. Isolated trials remain positive, including a 2008 Indian trial in 50 patients, but the overall level of evidence is unambiguous. Eczema is a dermatologist's concern.
A 24-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 39 patients with 600 mg of GLA daily measured not only clinical outcomes but also the lipid composition of plasma, red blood cells and epidermis, as well as the ultrastructure of the lipid bilayer under electron microscopy. Both groups improved, with no significant difference between them, and no lipid or ultrastructural changes were detected.
Traditional use would suggest that evening primrose oil prepares the cervix late in pregnancy. A randomized, triple-blind trial in 80 women at 40 weeks, with 1,000 mg twice daily for 7 days, found no difference in Bishop score, delivery date, need for induction, duration of different labor phases, or newborn scores. The authors recommend limiting its use to clinical trials. A reference review concludes that use during pregnancy is not supported by the literature and should be avoided.
Evening primrose or borage: the difference
| Criteria | Evening primrose oil | Borage oil |
|---|---|---|
| Plant | Oenothera biennis, yellow flower of North American origin | Borago officinalis, Mediterranean plant with blue flowers |
| GLA content | More modest, offset by high linoleic acid content | The most concentrated in the plant kingdom, often double that of evening primrose |
| Research volume | By far the most studied, particularly in gynecology and inflammation | Fewer trials, but the reference one on skin hydration |
| What is best documented | Cyclical breast comfort, menopause formulas | Hydration, water loss, roughness and skin flaking |
| Benefits of combining | Cover both fatty acid profiles, borage's concentrated GLA and evening primrose's linoleic acid contribution, in a single dose | |
A useful clarification on vitamin E, present in our formula at 10 mg per day. Its primary role here is not cosmetic but technical: polyunsaturated fatty acids oxidize easily, and natural tocopherol protects the oil in the capsule. That said, a six-month randomized pilot trial in 85 women with cyclical mastalgia tested vitamin E alone, evening primrose oil alone, and the combination of the two; all three arms showed improvement in maximum pain compared to baseline, unlike placebo, with a trend toward reduction without statistical significance between groups.
Dosage, timing and duration
| Objective | Trial dose | Duration | Population |
|---|---|---|---|
| Skin, hydration and barrier | Approximately 2.2 g of fatty acids per day, borage oil | 12 weeks | Healthy women |
| Dermatology | 500 mg evening primrose oil per day | 5 months | Randomized trial in 50 patients |
| Breast comfort | 2,600 mg per day in two doses | 6 weeks | 1,015 patients |
| Cyclic mastalgia, pilot trial | 3,000 mg per day, alone or with vitamin E | 6 months | 85 women |
| Menopause | Evening primrose in combination, variable doses | 12 weeks | Menopausal women |
Reading a label. Two capsules providing 500 mg of evening primrose and 500 mg of borage deliver 1 g of GLA-rich oils per day. This places the intake in the low to moderate range of protocols, precisely that of the skin trial. What matters more than the weight of oil is the quality of extraction : cold-pressed oil preserves fatty acids and natural vitamin E, whereas hot refining degrades them.
Safety and precautions
The safety profile is one of the strongest points of the evidence. The meta-analysis of 1,752 patients found no increase in nausea, bloating, headaches, dizziness, weight gain, or taste alteration compared to placebo or comparative treatments. The Cochrane review notes that in trials, evening primrose oil, borage oil, and their placebos shared the same adverse effects, which were mild, transient, and primarily digestive.
Pregnancy and breastfeeding: not recommended. Trials on labor induction do not support this use, and a reference review concludes that use during pregnancy is not supported by the literature and should be avoided.
Anticoagulant or antiplatelet treatment: medical advice essential. A trial in menopausal women showed that evening primrose oil supplementation attenuates induced platelet aggregation, dense granule secretion, and platelet integrin activation, with a persistent effect after the withdrawal period. This is a potentially cardioprotective effect in these women, but requires caution with blood-thinning treatment. The Cochrane review also reports a study showing increased bleeding in people taking warfarin.
Scheduled surgery: it is prudent to discontinue in advance, for the same reason, and to inform the anesthesiologist as with any supplement.
Very prolonged use: the Cochrane review notes that one published case, after more than a year of continuous use, suggests a theoretical risk of inflammation, thrombosis, and immunosuppression, and that short-term trials do not inform about long-term use. Courses of two to three months with a break remain the documented framework.
60 capsules providing daily 500 mg of evening primrose oil and 500 mg of borage oil from organic farming, obtained by cold pressing to preserve fatty acids, with 10 mg of natural vitamin E that protects the oil from oxidation. Two capsules during a meal, 30-day course, also available by subscription.
View Evening primrose / borage oilRated 4.6/5 by our customers. Not recommended for pregnant and nursing women and people on anticoagulant treatment.
Choose what resonates most with you: the answer appears just below.
That's exactly what the 12-week trial measured: increased hydration, decreased water loss, reduced roughness and flaking. Two capsules at meals, assessment at three months. Thehyaluronic acid and collagen work through different mechanisms and combine without overlap.
The data are mixed: equal results with placebo in the meta-analysis, but also equal results with danazol and topical NSAIDs, and superior to acetaminophen in a study of 1,015 patients. Continuous intake over two to three cycles before judging. And if nothing changes, have your ferritin and thyroid levels checked: these are the two factors that block the response.
On skin dryness accompanying hormonal decline, the measured benefit is the same as in other women. On hot flashes, evening primrose appears in formulas that work without its individual contribution being isolated; the most well-documented active ingredients alone are found elsewhere, and our menopause guide sorts it out.
The Cochrane review is clear: neither evening primrose nor borage taken orally improve eczema more than placebo, across 27 trials and 1,596 participants. Very reactive skin or recurring patches require a dermatologist. Essential fatty acids remain useful for the comfort of dry skin, which is a different matter.
This test provides guidance; it does not replace professional medical advice.
Frequently Asked Questions
Understanding
What are evening primrose oil and borage oil?
Two plant oils obtained by pressing seeds. Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) is a plant native to North America, borage (Borago officinalis) a Mediterranean plant with blue flowers. Their common feature is rare in the plant world: they contain gamma-linolenic acid, or GLA, an omega-6 that most dietary oils do not provide. Borage is the most concentrated plant source, evening primrose the most studied.
What is GLA and why is it special?
Gamma-linolenic acid is the product of a step your body performs itself: the conversion of linoleic acid, the omega-6 abundant in diet, by an enzyme called delta-6-desaturase. This step is the slowest in the chain. GLA is then converted to DGLA, a precursor of anti-inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandin E1. Providing GLA amounts to entering the chain after its bottleneck, which sunflower oil or olive oil do not allow.
What is the difference between evening primrose and borage?
The difference is mainly in concentration and research history. Borage is the plant source richest in GLA, often around double that of evening primrose at equal weight, and it was used in the reference trial on skin hydration. Evening primrose is significantly more studied overall, particularly on breast comfort and inflammation, and provides more linoleic acid. Combining them allows coverage of both fatty acid profiles.
Skin
What does the skin trial show?
A randomized trial published in the British Journal of Nutrition gave women 2.2 g of fatty acids daily in the form of borage oil for 12 weeks, versus placebo. Skin hydration significantly increased, insensible water loss decreased by approximately 10% as early as week six, roughness and scaling significantly decreased, and redness after controlled irritation was reduced. The placebo group showed no change on any of these parameters, except slightly on hydration.
Does evening primrose or borage oil truly hydrate the skin?
This is the area where measurements are clearest. Beyond the 12-week trial, a 2024 systematic review concludes that in healthy volunteers, evening primrose oil improves skin hydration and barrier function. A 2022 dermocosmetics review describes it as effective for strengthening stratum corneum integrity, its recovery, and its lipid ratio. The mechanism is consistent: essential fatty acids are structural components of the lipid cement between corneocyte cells.
Does evening primrose oil treat eczema?
No, and it is important to state this clearly. A 2013 Cochrane review grouped 27 trials and 1,596 participants: neither evening primrose oil nor borage oil taken orally improve eczema more than placebo, and the authors judge that further studies would be difficult to justify. Isolated trials remain positive, but the overall level of evidence is clear. Atopic eczema requires a dermatologist.
Cycle and Menopause
Does evening primrose oil relieve breast pain before periods?
The data are mixed and deserve to be read in full. A 2021 meta-analysis of 13 trials and 1,752 patients concludes that evening primrose oil performs no better than placebo, but also performs equally to topical NSAIDs, danazol, and vitamin E, without increasing adverse effects. Conversely, a study of 1,015 patients followed in a breast clinic found evening primrose oil at 2,600 mg daily significantly more effective than acetaminophen. The signal exists, its magnitude remains debated.
Why does evening primrose oil work for some women and not others?
This is the most useful finding from the 1,015-patient study: five factors significantly modify the response, including iron deficiency and confirmed hypothyroidism or Hashimoto's thyroiditis. In patients who did not respond, correcting iron or thyroid hormone effectively treated breast pain. In other words, a lack of results often points toward a condition to explore rather than toward an ineffective product.
Does evening primrose oil act on premenstrual syndrome as a whole?
Regarding overall PMS, the most rigorous trial is disappointing: a double-blind crossover trial in 38 women over six cycles found symptom improvement, but identical under evening primrose oil and placebo, concluding a placebo effect. A 2021 review on plants in gynecology considers that vitex has more solid data for this indication. Breast comfort is better documented than PMS taken as a whole.
Is it useful during menopause?
Positive data exist, but they almost always concern combinations. A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial in 101 menopausal women showed, with a formula combining soy isoflavones, black cohosh, vitex, and evening primrose oil, a significant reduction in hot flashes and night sweats, sleep disturbances, depressive mood, and irritability over 12 weeks. An open study on 156 women with a formula containing evening primrose oil reports a 48% decrease in hot flashes. The share attributable to evening primrose alone cannot be isolated.
In practice
What dose per day?
Trials cover a wide range depending on the objective: approximately 2.2 g of fatty acids per day in the skin trial, 500 mg of evening primrose oil per day in a dermatological trial, 2,600 mg per day in the mastalgia study, up to 3,000 mg in a pilot trial on cyclic breast pain. Two capsules providing 500 mg of evening primrose and 500 mg of borage place the daily intake in the low to medium range of these protocols, that of the skin trial.
When to take the capsules and for how long?
During a meal, because these are oils and the presence of fat promotes their absorption while limiting reflux. For duration, the reference trial measures its first effects at six weeks and its full effects at twelve: three months is the honest benchmark before deciding. For breast comfort, trials have the oil taken continuously over several cycles and not only on painful days.
Can you take it year-round?
Clinical trials typically last from 6 weeks to 6 months, which limits our knowledge. The Cochrane review notes that one published case, after more than a year of continuous use, raises a theoretical risk of inflammation and thrombosis, and reminds that short-term studies do not inform about prolonged use. In practice, treatment courses of two to three months with a break remain the best documented framework.
Safety
Are there side effects?
They are infrequent and mild: mild digestive disturbances, oily reflux, occasional headaches. The Cochrane review emphasizes that in trials, these effects were the same under oil and placebo. The meta-analysis on mastalgia finds no increase in nausea, bloating, headaches, or weight gain compared to placebo or comparison treatments.
Who should avoid evening primrose and borage oil?
Pregnant and nursing women, in the absence of safety data and because trials on labor induction do not support this use. People taking anticoagulants or antiplatelet agents, as one trial showed that evening primrose oil reduces platelet reactivity, and one report described increased bleeding on warfarin. It is prudent to discontinue before scheduled surgery, as with any supplement acting on platelets.
What to remember about evening primrose and borage?
That their value lies in a molecule that common diet does not provide, GLA, which bypasses the slowest step in omega-6 metabolism. That the best measured area is skin: hydration, water loss, roughness, and scaling improved in a 12-week randomized trial. That breast comfort has real but debated data, with valuable insight into the role of iron and thyroid. That menopause relies on combinations. That eczema is unclear. And that the real precaution concerns pregnancy and anticoagulants.
Glossary
- GLA (gamma-linolenic acid)
- Rare omega-6, produced from the conversion of linoleic acid by delta-6-desaturase; abundant in evening primrose and borage seeds.
- Delta-6-desaturase
- Enzyme that transforms linoleic acid into GLA; the slowest step in the omega-6 chain, and therefore rate-limiting.
- DGLA
- Dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid, direct metabolite of GLA; turning point toward anti-inflammatory mediators or toward arachidonic acid.
- Prostaglandin E1
- Mediator derived from DGLA, with anti-inflammatory properties, as opposed to prostaglandins from arachidonic acid.
- Transepidermal water loss
- Amount of water that evaporates through the epidermis; reference instrumental marker of skin barrier integrity.
- Stratum corneum
- Cornified layer, the most superficial part of the epidermis; its cells are linked by a lipid cement of which fatty acids are part.
- Cyclic mastalgia
- Breast pain or tension rhythmed by the cycle, maximal before menstruation.
- Danazol
- Prescription medication used in severe mastalgia; effective but limited by its androgenic effects.
- Cold-pressed
- Mechanical extraction without heating, which preserves polyunsaturated fatty acids and natural tocopherols in the oil.
Sources
The studies cited below were identified via PubMed.
- De Spirt S, Stahl W, Tronnier H, et al. An intervention with flaxseed oil and borage oil supplements modulates skin condition in women. British Journal of Nutrition, 2009;101(3):440-445. DOI
- Sharifi M, Nourani N, Sanaie S, Hamedeyazdan S. Effect of Oenothera biennis oil on inflammatory diseases: systematic review of clinical trials. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 2024;24(1):89. DOI
- Blaak J, Staib P. Updated review of the efficacy and benefits of sweet almond, evening primrose, and jojoba oils in skincare. International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 2022;44(1):1-9. DOI
- Ahmad Adni LL, Norhayati MN, Mohd Rosli RR, Muhammad J. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy of evening primrose oil in the treatment of mastalgia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2021;18(12):6295. DOI
- Balci FL, Uras C, Feldman S. Clinical factors affecting the therapeutic efficacy of evening primrose oil on mastalgia. Annals of Surgical Oncology, 2020;27(12):4844-4852. DOI
- Pruthi S, Wahner-Roedler DL, Torkelson CJ, et al. Vitamin E and evening primrose oil in the management of cyclic mastalgia: a randomized pilot trial. Alternative Medicine Review, 2010;15(1):59-67. PubMed
- Khoo SK, Munro C, Battistutta D. Evening primrose oil and treatment of premenstrual syndrome. Medical Journal of Australia, 1990;153(4):189-192. DOI
- Kenda M, Kočevar Glavač N, Nagy M, Sollner Dolenc M. Herbal products used in menopause and gynecological disorders. Molecules, 2021;26(24):7421. DOI
- Rattanatantikul T, Maiprasert M, Sugkraroek P, Bumrungpert A. Efficacy and safety of a nutraceutical on menopausal symptoms: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Dietary Supplements, 2020;19(2):168-183. DOI
- Palacios S, Mustata C, Rizo JM, Regidor PA. Improvement of menopausal symptoms with a nutritional product containing evening primrose oil, hops, saffron, tryptophan, and vitamins. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 2023;27(17):8180-8189. DOI
- Bamford JTM, Ray S, Musekiwa A, van Gool C, Humphreys R, Ernst E. Evening primrose oil and borage oil orally for eczema. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2013;(4):CD004416. DOI
- Whitaker DK, Cilliers J, de Beer C. Evening primrose oil in the treatment of chronic hand eczema: disappointing therapeutic results. Dermatology, 1996;193(2):115-120. DOI
- Kalati M, Kashanian M, Jahdi F, Naseri M, Haghani H, Sheikhansari N. Evening primrose oil and work, is it effective? A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 2018;38(4):488-492. DOI
- Yamaguchi A, Stanger L, Freedman JC, et al. Omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acid supplementation attenuates platelet reactivity in postmenopausal women. Clinical and Translational Science, 2022;15(10):2378-2391. DOI
- Mustonen AM, Nieminen P. Dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid: metabolism, derivatives and potential importance in chronic inflammation. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2023;24(3):2116. DOI
- Kanda N, Hoashi T, Saeki H. Nutrition and atopic dermatitis. Journal of Nippon Medical School, 2021;88(3):171-177. DOI
- Bayles B, Usatine R. Evening primrose oil. American Family Physician, 2009;80(12):1405-1408. PubMed
