Ten weeks of intensive resistance training, two groups of young adults, the same amount of protein: on one side an omnivorous diet, on the other a fully plant-based diet. In the end, thigh volume had increased by 8.3% in both groups. This 2023 result summarizes the science: without meat, and even without any animal products, you can build muscle, with a few conditions.
This guide brings together studies identified via PubMed, distinguishing between vegetarian, who consumes eggs and dairy products, and vegan, who consumes neither: trials against omnivorous diet, protein per kilogram and per meal, quality of plant-based proteins, peas, soy and rice versus whey, creatine, micronutrients, training, then a practical protocol.
Protein and training : with 1.6 to 2 g of protein per kilogram per day, trials in young adults show no difference in muscle gain or strength between vegan and omnivorous diets. Plant-based proteins, lower in leucine and less digestible, call for aiming at the higher end of the range, over at least four meals. In seniors, switching to vegan without attention to protein led to muscle loss in 12 weeks.
Creatine and micronutrients : without meat, creatine reserves are lower, and in vegetarians, creatine increased reserves, lean mass and strength, with an increase in reserves and lean mass greater than in omnivores in the reference trial. Vitamin B12 is essential as a supplement in vegans, and spirulina is not a reliable source. Vitamin D, iron, zinc, iodine, omega-3 and calcium should be monitored.
- Vegetarian or vegan: what changes for muscle
- Vegan versus omnivore: what the trials show
- How much protein, per kilogram and per meal
- Leucine, digestibility, PDCAAS and DIAAS
- Combining sources and composing your meals
- Peas, soy, rice versus whey: the trials
- Eggs and dairy products: the vegetarian advantage
- Creatine, even more useful without meat
- Carnosine and beta-alanine
- B12, vitamin D, iron, zinc, iodine, omega-3, calcium
- Training, energy and common mistakes
- The practical protocol
- Frequently Asked Questions
Vegetarian or Vegan: What Changes for Muscle
The vegetarian, also called lacto-ovo-vegetarian, excludes meat and fish but consumes eggs and dairy products. The vegan excludes all animal products. For muscle, the distinction matters: eggs and dairy provide proteins rich in leucine, some vitamin B12 and plenty of calcium, which vegans must find elsewhere.
A review dedicated to vegetarian diets estimates that lacto-ovo-vegetarians consume approximately 1.04 g of protein per kilogram per day, around 70 g. Among vegans in the British EPIC-Oxford cohort, 16.5% of men and 8.1% of women remained below their estimated requirements. These requirements are those of the general population: for building muscle, the target is significantly higher.
Other differences: according to a 2023 review dedicated to the vegan athlete, vegetarians and vegans have 30 to 50% less creatine in plasma and about 12% less in muscle, and vitamin B12 is absent from plant foods.
Vegan versus Omnivore: What Studies Show
A few hours after a meal, soy or wheat stimulate muscle protein synthesis slightly less than dairy proteins. But over several weeks, does muscle grow just as much?
Nineteen long-term vegan young men and nineteen omnivores, untrained, followed 12 weeks of supervised resistance training, twice a week, with protein intake increased to 1.6 g per kilogram per day through soy isolate in vegans and whey in omnivores. Lean leg mass increased by 1.2 kg in both groups, and maximum leg press load by 97 kg versus 117 kg, a non-significant difference: no variable differed between groups.
Hevia-Larraín V, Gualano B, Longobardi I, et al. Sports Med 2021;51(6):1317-1330. DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01434-9
The participants, beginners, were not randomized. A British randomized trial with dietary monitoring: 22 young adults, 11 men and 11 women, trained 5 days a week for 10 weeks with approximately 2 g of protein per kilogram per day, omnivorous or vegan, the latter with a diet rich in mycoprotein derived from fungus. Thigh volume increased by 8.3% in both groups, lean mass by 2.6 kg and 3.1 kg, and strength comparably. One of the authors was employed by a mycoprotein manufacturer.
Seventy-two adults aged 65 and older were randomly assigned to their usual omnivorous diet, a freely composed vegan diet, or that same vegan diet with resistance training, for 12 weeks. After switching to vegan, they spontaneously reduced their protein by 19 to 28 g per day. Without training, they lost 0.61 liters of thigh muscle and 1.15 kg of lean limb mass, while omnivores remained stable; with resistance training, the loss was reduced by nearly half, 0.35 liters and 0.62 kg, without disappearing entirely.
Domić J, Grootswagers P, Pinckaers PJM, et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2026;124(3):101416. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2026.101416
This trial shows what happens when you remove animal products without replacing the proteins, at an age when muscle responds less well. In 19 men aged 51 to 69, not randomized, lean mass increased over 12 weeks of strength training with meat and decreased with a lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet at low protein intake, around 0.78 g per kilo according to the 2023 review. But in a randomized trial in 21 men aged 65 consuming 1.03 to 1.17 g of protein per kilo, including 0.6 g of beef or textured soy, thigh cross-section increased by 4.2% with soy and 6.0% with beef, with no significant difference.
A 2021 meta-analysis of 16 randomized trials summarizes the overall picture: the protein source does not modify absolute lean mass or strength, but animal proteins provide a slight advantage in percentage of lean mass and, before age 50, 0.41 kg of additional lean mass on average. The gap exists but remains small; according to the 2023 review, it no longer appears when total protein intake is high.
How much protein, per kilo and per meal
According to a meta-analysis of 49 randomized trials and 1,863 participants, protein supplementation increased maximum strength gain by 2.49 kg and lean mass gain by 0.30 kg, a benefit that plateaued around 1.6 g per kilo per day of total intake. The position of the International Society of Sports Nutrition recommends 1.4 to 2.0 g per kilo per day, and 2.3 to 3.1 g in caloric restriction for trained practitioners.
No trial has set a figure specific to vegans. A practical review for vegan athletes proposes, as a precaution, the upper end of the range, due to lower digestibility of plant proteins; the two positive vegan trials used 1.6 and approximately 2 g per kilo. For 70 kg, this works out to 112 to 140 g per day, according to our calculation.
As for distribution, a review concludes 0.4 g per kilo per meal over at least four meals to reach 1.6 g per kilo per day, and up to 0.55 g per meal for 2.2 g. The International Society of Sports Nutrition position mentions 20 to 40 g per serving every 3 to 4 hours, with 700 to 3,000 mg of leucine. According to the 2023 review, differences between plant and animal proteins tend to disappear around 30 g per serving, more than the 20 g often sufficient with animal proteins.
A reference review on plant proteins points out periods when you eat less, to lose fat or during injury: needs remain high when portion sizes shrink, and protein quality matters more.
Leucine, digestibility, PDCAAS and DIAAS
Three properties matter. First the content of essential amino acids : 21 to 22% for oats, lupine and wheat, versus 43% for whey, 39% for milk and 32% for egg, according to an analysis of many isolated proteins; pea reaches 30% and potato 37%, according to a 2021 review.
Next leucine, the main trigger of muscle synthesis. The reference minimum is 5.9%: hemp (5.1%) stays below, soy (6.9%), pea (7.2%), whole rice (7.4%) and potato (8.3%) exceed it, versus 11.0% for whey, 9.0% for milk and 7.0% for egg. To provide 2.7 g of leucine, the dose of 25 g of whey, you need approximately 33 g of potato protein, 37 g of whole rice, 38 g of pea, 40 g of soy, 45 g of wheat and 71 g of quinoa.
Finally digestibility. Approximately 85 to 95% of egg and chicken proteins are absorbed, versus 50 to 75% for chickpeas, mung beans and yellow peas, due to fiber and tannins in the whole food. Extracted and purified in powder form, plant proteins approach the absorption of animal proteins. A 2015 review adds greater capture of plant amino acids by the intestine and liver.
The PDCAAS relates the most limiting amino acid to requirements, corrected for digestibility, and caps at 1.00; the DIAAS, more recent, corrects each amino acid and can exceed 1.00. An analysis classifies potato, egg and casein among excellent quality proteins, soy and whey among high quality, and leaves pea, rice, oats or hemp below the 75 threshold; its authors worked for a potato protein manufacturer. Soy achieves a PDCAAS of 1.00, but a DIAAS of 0.91 versus 1.09 for whey, according to the practical review for vegan athletes, scores from animal studies.
| Protein | Leucine and weak point | For 2.7 g of leucine |
|---|---|---|
| Soy | 6.9% leucine; low methionine (0.4%); PDCAAS 1.00 | Approximately 40 g of protein |
| Peas | 7.2% leucine; adequate lysine (5.9%), low methionine (0.4%) | Approximately 38 g of protein |
| Brown rice | 7.4% leucine; high methionine (2.5%), low lysine (2.4%) | Approximately 37 g of protein |
| Potato | 8.3% leucine; 37% essential amino acids | Approximately 33 g of protein |
| Wheat | 6.1% leucine; very low lysine (1.4%) | Approximately 45 g of protein |
| Lentils, chickpeas | Low methionine (0.3%); absorption of 50 to 75% for chickpeas | Not calculated by the authors |
| Whey, for comparison | 11.0% leucine; 43% essential amino acids | Approximately 25 g of protein |
These figures concern isolated proteins; for legumes, tofu, tempeh or seitan, the label remains the best reference. Our comparison plant or animal proteins completes this table.
A review on plant proteins, written by employees of a nutrition industry company, reports that studies in humans have not associated soy protein intake of up to 60 g per day with significant changes in testosterone or free testosterone.
Combining sources and composing your meals
Cereals lack mainly lysine but provide methionine; legumes do the opposite. According to the 2021 review, a single plant protein should be consumed in quantities 2 to 4 times larger to compensate for its limiting amino acid, whereas a mixture, for example brown rice or corn with as much soy or peas, requires only 1.1 to 1.9 times more protein. Pea and rice mixtures containing 40 to 90% peas achieve a PDCAAS of 1.00.
No need to combine these sources in the same bite: the practical guide for vegan athletes considers combining at each meal unnecessary, and a review on plant proteins indicates that sources taken at approximately 3-hour intervals complement each other. In EPIC-Oxford, lysine intake reached 58 mg per kilogram in lacto-ovo-vegetarians and 43 mg in vegans, above the estimated average requirement of 30 mg.
For 70 kg, approximately 28 to 35 g per meal, over four meals. Breakfast: oat flakes, soy drink, pumpkin seeds and pea or soy protein powder. Lunch: firm tofu or tempeh, brown rice, lentils and vegetables. Snack: soy yogurt and nuts. Dinner: seitan or red beans, quinoa and leafy greens. Vegetarian version: eggs, cottage cheese or skyr. Examples constructed by us, not tested protocols.
When meals are not sufficient, a protein powder, often at 80% protein or more for plant isolates, allows you to reach your target without multiplying very filling volumes.
Peas, soy, rice versus whey: the trials
One hundred sixty-one men aged 18 to 35 underwent 12 weeks of arm resistance training while taking 25 g of pea protein, whey or placebo twice daily. Overall, bicep thickness increased from 24.9 to 27.3 mm, with only a trend toward a difference between groups. In those who were weaker at baseline, it progressed by 20.2% with peas, 15.6% with whey and 8.6% with placebo: peas performed better than placebo, whey did not differ from either, and strength progressed with no difference.
Babault N, Païzis C, Deley G, et al. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2015;12(1):3. DOI: 10.1186/s12970-014-0064-5
Three authors worked for the manufacturer of the tested pea protein, and the favorable result came from a subgroup: a signal, not proof of superiority. For rice, in 24 trained men, 48 g of rice or whey protein after each session for 8 weeks increased lean mass by 2.5 kg and 3.2 kg, with no significant difference and comparable strength gains; the rice dose provided approximately 3.8 g of leucine versus 5.5 g, and the trial had no placebo group. For soy, a meta-analysis of 9 studies and 266 participants found no difference in strength or lean mass compared to whey or other animal proteins. Its lead author directs a nutrition consulting firm.
These trials remain few in number, short in duration, and conducted mainly in young men: they do not translate directly to women or seniors.
Eggs and dairy products: the vegetarian advantage
Milk contains 9.0% leucine and eggs 7.0%: eggs, quark, or skyr make it easier to reach 0.4 g per kilogram per meal. But it is the total quantity that matters, as the trials in middle-aged men remind us. For the vegetarian who consumes dairy products, our Whey 100% Isolate provides 22.9 g of protein per 30 g of powder; it is a milk protein, and therefore not suitable for vegans.
Eggs and milk do not solve the B12 question. According to a review on plant sources of B12, eggs contain approximately 0.9 to 1.4 µg per 100 g, with bioavailability of 3.7 to 9.2% once cooked, and milk 0.3 to 0.4 µg per 100 g: deficiency remains relatively common in lacto-ovo-vegetarians. Our article on vitamin B12 details this question.
Creatine, even more useful without meat
According to the 2023 review, a 70 kg man's creatine requirement is approximately 2 g per day, half of which typically comes from diet, especially meat. A randomized trial verified this in 40 omnivorous women: when switched to a vegetarian diet for 6 months, their muscle creatine decreased by 3 months, whereas a supplement of 1 g per day limited this decline.
Eighteen vegetarians and 24 non-vegetarians aged 19 to 55 underwent 8 weeks of resistance training with creatine or placebo, at a dose calculated on lean mass: 0.25 g per kilo of lean mass for 7 days, then 0.0625 g per kilo. At baseline, muscle creatine was lower in vegetarians, 117 versus 130 mmol per kilo. Creatine increased reserves more than placebo, bench press strength, fast-twitch fiber area, and lean mass; in vegetarians, the increase in reserves, lean mass, and total work was greater than in non-vegetarians.
Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Parise G, et al. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003;35(11):1946-1955. DOI: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000093614.17517.79
A systematic review of 9 studies in vegetarians confirms an increase in reserves, lean mass, strength and power, but divergent results on a benefit superior to that of omnivores, with a moderate to high risk of bias. Creatine therefore works in vegetarians; an advantage over omnivores remains uncertain.
On the brain side, in 45 young vegetarians, 5 g per day for 6 weeks improved working memory and a reasoning test compared to placebo. In 128 young women, 20 g per day for 5 days improved memory in vegetarians, not in omnivores. The systematic review notes, however, that brain phosphocreatine did not change: these results remain to be confirmed, as detailed in our article creatine and brain.
The dose: a loading phase of 5 g four times per day for 5 to 7 days then 3 to 5 g per day, or directly 3 g per day, which leads to the same saturation, more slowly and without the water retention of loading. Our Creatine Creapure provides 3 g of creatine monohydrate in three vegetable capsules in HPMC; our creatine monohydrate powder provides 5 g per day. The cited trials used other doses: 5 g per day for memory, 20 g per day for 5 days in young women, loading then approximately 4 g per day in 2003; none tested 3 g per day in vegetarians, and the equivalence of 3 g without loading comes from the 2023 review. According to the position of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, up to 30 g per day for 5 years was well tolerated in healthy individuals.
Carnosine and beta-alanine
Carnosine, a buffer of muscle acidity, is manufactured from the beta-alanine in meat. In a cross-sectional study of 149 people, including 12 vegetarian men, calf carnosine was 26% lower in the latter. But in the 6-month randomized trial in women who switched to vegetarianism, it did not change without supplementation, and increased with 0.8 then 0.4 g of beta-alanine per day. None measured an effect on muscle gain: for this goal, beta-alanine falls far short of protein and creatine.
B12, vitamin D, iron, zinc, iodine, omega-3, calcium
These nutrients do not build muscle, but a deficiency undermines recovery, energy, or bone health. The risk is higher in vegans; iron and zinc also concern vegetarians.
Vitamin B12. In an analysis of 689 men from the EPIC-Oxford cohort, 52% of vegan men were deficient, and according to the 2023 review, 21% more had low levels. The International Olympic Committee, the American College of Sports Medicine, and the International Society of Sports Nutrition recommend vegan and vegetarian athletes supplement with B12 or consume fortified foods. The Spirulina does not fulfill this role: cyanobacteria supplements often contain a pseudo-vitamin B12 that is inactive in humans, and the review on B12 sources judges them inadequate.
Vitamin D. In the United Kingdom, vegans consume 0.7 µg per day compared to 3.1 µg in omnivores, with a blood level approximately 20 nmol per liter lower, and in a meta-analysis of 23 studies, 56% of 2,313 athletes had insufficient levels, below 80 nmol per liter. In the deficient athlete, supplementation corrects the level; none of the trials included here attribute an independent effect on muscle gain. D3 now exists extracted from lichen.
Iron. A meta-analysis of 24 cross-sectional studies finds ferritin 29.71 µg per liter lower in vegetarians, 61.88 µg in men and 17.70 µg in non-menopausal women. Iron from plants is absorbed at 2 to 20%, versus 15 to 35% for that from meat. Without deficiency, supplementation does not improve endurance: the supplement is only justified after a blood test. In this case, our iron bisglycinate provides 14 mg of iron, 80 mg of vitamin C and 200 µg of vitamin B9 per vegetable capsule, one hour before a meal.
Zinc. According to a meta-analysis of 26 studies, vegetarians consume 0.88 mg less zinc per day and have blood zinc 0.93 µmol per liter lower, especially women and vegans. Our Zinc in vegetable capsules provides 14.16 mg of zinc (gluconate) and 2 mg of vitamin B6 per two capsules.
Iodine. A meta-analysis of 11 studies and 4,421 adults finds the lowest intakes and urinary iodine in vegans: median urinary iodine of 12.2 to 44.0 µg per liter depending on studies, and intake dropping to 17.3 µg per day in a British cohort, far from the optimal range of 100 to 200 µg per liter. Iodized salt is the simple solution; algae can provide excesses.
Long-Chain Omega-3. EPA and DHA come almost exclusively from fish, and the body converts alpha-linolenic acid from flaxseeds or walnuts to EPA at approximately 8% and to DHA at approximately 0.5%. In 104 vegetarians, a microalgae oil providing 0.94 g of DHA per day for 8 weeks increased the omega-3 index from 4.8 to 8.4%. No effect on performance is demonstrated: this is a general health matter.
Calcium. In EPIC-Oxford, vegans consumed 610 mg per day in men and 582 mg in women. A meta-analysis of 20 studies and 37,134 participants associates vegetarian and vegan diets with lower bone density, and the vegan diet with more fractures: these are observational data, which do not prove a cause-and-effect relationship. Calcium-set tofu, fortified beverages, broccoli and kale are the levers cited.
| Nutrient | What the studies show | Practical reference |
|---|---|---|
| Vitamin B12 | 52% deficiency in vegan men in EPIC-Oxford; spirulina unreliable | Supplement or fortified foods, essential in vegans |
| Vitamin D | 0.7 µg per day in vegans; 56% of athletes insufficient | Blood test, then supplement if needed |
| Iron | Ferritin 29.71 µg per liter lower in vegetarians | Vitamin C with meals; supplement if deficiency confirmed |
| Zinc | Lower intake and blood zinc, especially in women and vegans | Soaking, fermentation, fortified foods or low dose |
| Iodine | Lowest intake and urinary iodine in vegans | Iodized salt; caution with algae |
| DHA and EPA | Omega-3 index of 4.8 to 8.4% with microalgae oil | Microalgae oil, in addition to seeds |
| Calcium | Approximately 600 mg per day in vegans; lower bone density | Calcium-set tofu, fortified beverages, cruciferous vegetables |
| Creatine | Approximately 12% lower in muscle without meat | 3 to 5 g per day of creatine monohydrate |
Creatine : not recommended for children, adolescents, pregnant or nursing women; maintain adequate hydration; medical advice in case of kidney disease. Iron : only in case of confirmed deficiency; not recommended during pregnancy, breastfeeding, and in case of hemochromatosis. Zinc : not recommended during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Vitamin D : advice from a practitioner during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Iodine : medical advice in case of thyroid disease.
Training, energy, and common mistakes
Regardless of diet, training creates the signal. A meta-analysis of 15 studies shows a dose-response relationship: each additional weekly set was associated with 0.37% additional muscle gain, with a trend favoring 10 or more sets per muscle per week. Progressively increasing loads or repetitions remains the primary driver.
Energy is the second pillar. A review on caloric surplus recommends starting cautiously with 1,500 to 2,000 kJ more per day, approximately 360 to 480 kcal according to our conversion, then adjusting based on body composition. However, plant-based eating, rich in fiber, fills up quickly: the practical guide for vegan athletes recommends multiplying meals and adding nuts, seeds, and oils.
Replacing meat with starches alone, which lowers protein intake, as seen in seniors from the 2026 trial. Staying below 1.4 g of protein per kilogram. Eating too little due to excess fiber. Forgetting B12, or relying on spirulina. Neglecting creatine. Taking iron without a blood test. Changing diets without monitoring weight or lifting loads.
The practical protocol
This protocol draws from the parameters of the cited studies, for a healthy adult; quantities are benchmarks to be adjusted.
Creatine monohydrate in vegetable capsules (HPMC). Three capsules per day provide 3 g of creatine monohydrate, with a large glass of water, with one to two capsules after exercise preferably.
See Creapure CreatineFor vitamin D, our Vegetable Vitamin D3 extracted from lichen provides 1,000 IU per drop.
Frequently Asked Questions
Can you build muscle as a vegan?
Yes. With 1.6 to 2 g of protein per kilo per day, trials in young adults show no difference in muscle gain or strength compared to an omnivorous diet.
How much protein per day for a vegan who does strength training?
The reference range is 1.4 to 2.0 g per kilo per day. For a vegan, it's better to aim high, that is 112 to 140 g for 70 kg, spread over at least four meals of approximately 0.4 g per kilo.
Are plant-based proteins less effective than whey?
At low doses, they stimulate muscle slightly less, as they are lower in leucine. At sufficient doses, studies of several weeks with rice, pea or soy show no difference compared to whey.
Do you need to combine cereals and legumes at each meal?
No. Cereals lack lysine and legumes lack methionine, but you just need to combine them throughout the day: sources consumed a few hours apart complement each other.
Which plant-based protein powder should you choose for strength training?
Soy and pea have the most solid data, and a pea and rice blend containing 40 to 90% pea achieves maximum quality score. You need approximately 38 to 40 g of pea or soy protein for the leucine in 25 g of whey.
Is creatine useful for a vegetarian or vegan?
Yes. Without meat, muscle creatine is approximately 12% lower. In an 8-week trial, creatine increased stores, lean mass and strength, with greater increases in stores and lean mass in vegetarians.
What dose of creatine should you take as a vegetarian?
3 to 5 g of creatine monohydrate per day, continuously. A loading phase of 20 g per day for 5 to 7 days fills stores faster, but 3 g per day achieves the same level in a few weeks.
Does spirulina provide vitamin B12?
No, not reliably: cyanobacteria supplements like spirulina contain mainly a pseudo-vitamin B12, which is inactive in humans. Vegans should take a B12 supplement or eat fortified foods.
Does soy lower testosterone?
According to a review on plant proteins, studies in humans have not associated soy protein intake of up to 60 g per day with significant changes in testosterone or free testosterone.
Do you need to eat more for vegetarian muscle gain?
A moderate surplus helps: a review suggests starting with approximately 1,500 to 2,000 kJ more per day, then adjusting.
Sources
The studies cited below were identified via PubMed.
- Mariotti F, Gardner CD. Dietary proteins and amino acids in vegetarian diets: a review. Nutrients, 2019;11(11):2661. DOI
- West S, Monteyne AJ, van der Heijden I, et al. Nutritional considerations for the vegan athlete. Advances in Nutrition, 2023;14(4):774-795. DOI
- Hevia-Larraín V, Gualano B, Longobardi I, et al. High-protein plant-based diet versus omnivore diet with equal protein for muscle building: vegans and habitual omnivores. Sports Medicine, 2021;51(6):1317-1330. DOI
- Monteyne AJ, Coelho MOC, Murton AJ, et al. High-protein vegan and omnivore diets: comparable myofibrillar protein synthesis and hypertrophy in young adults. The Journal of Nutrition, 2023;153(6):1680-1695. DOI
- Domić J, Grootswagers P, Pinckaers PJM, et al. A freely chosen vegan diet reduces muscle mass in healthy older adults: a randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2026;124(3):101416. DOI
- Campbell WW, Barton ML, Cyr-Campbell D, et al. Omnivore diet versus lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet: body composition and muscle with resistance training in older men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1999;70(6):1032-1039. DOI
- Haub MD, Wells AM, Tarnopolsky MA, Campbell WW. Protein source, body composition, and muscle size with resistance training in older men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2002;76(3):511-517. DOI
- Lim MT, Pan BJ, Toh DWK, et al. Animal versus plant proteins for lean mass and strength: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Nutrients, 2021;13(2):661. DOI
- Morton RW, Murphy KT, McKellar SR, et al. Meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on muscle mass and strength gains from resistance training. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 2018;52(6):376-384. DOI
- Jäger R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 2017;14:20. DOI
- Rogerson D. Vegan diets: practical advice for athletes and practitioners. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 2017;14:36. DOI
- Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA. How much protein can the body utilize in a single meal for muscle building? Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 2018;15:10. DOI
- Pinckaers PJM, Trommelen J, Snijders T, van Loon LJC. The anabolic response to plant protein ingestion. Sports Medicine, 2021;51(Suppl 1):59-74. DOI
- Gorissen SHM, Crombag JJR, Senden JMG, et al. Protein content and amino acid composition of commercial plant protein isolates. Amino Acids, 2018;50(12):1685-1695. DOI
- van Vliet S, Burd NA, van Loon LJC. The anabolic response of muscle to plant or animal protein consumption. The Journal of Nutrition, 2015;145(9):1981-1991. DOI
- Herreman L, Nommensen P, Pennings B, Laus MC. Overview of plant and animal protein quality according to the DIAAS score. Food Science and Nutrition, 2020;8(10):5379-5391. DOI
- Hertzler SR, Lieblein-Boff JC, Weiler M, Allgeier C. Plant proteins: assessing their nutritional quality and effects on health and physical function. Nutrients, 2020;12(12):3704. DOI
- Babault N, Païzis C, Deley G, et al. Pea protein promotes muscle thickness gains in resistance training: a randomized controlled trial versus placebo and whey. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 2015;12(1):3. DOI
- Joy JM, Lowery RP, Wilson JM, et al. Effects of 8 weeks of whey or rice protein supplementation on body composition and performance. Nutrition Journal, 2013;12:86. DOI
- Messina M, Lynch H, Dickinson JM, Reed KE. No difference between soy protein and animal protein on muscle mass and strength gains in resistance training. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 2018;28(6):674-685. DOI
- Watanabe F, Yabuta Y, Bito T, Teng F. Plant-based foods containing vitamin B12 for vegetarians. Nutrients, 2014;6(5):1861-1873. DOI
- Blancquaert L, Baguet A, Bex T, et al. Switching to a vegetarian diet reduces creatine in omnivorous women, without modifying carnitine and carnosine: a randomized trial. British Journal of Nutrition, 2018;119(7):759-770. DOI
- Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Parise G, et al. Effect of creatine and resistance training on muscle creatine and performance in vegetarians. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 2003;35(11):1946-1955. DOI
- Kaviani M, Shaw K, Chilibeck PD. Benefits of creatine in vegetarians compared to omnivorous athletes: a systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2020;17(9):3041. DOI
- Rae C, Digney AL, McEwan SR, Bates TC. Oral creatine monohydrate improves brain performance: a crossover placebo-controlled trial. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 2003;270(1529):2147-2150. DOI
- Benton D, Donohoe R. Influence of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in vegetarians and omnivores. British Journal of Nutrition, 2011;105(7):1100-1105. DOI
- Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. Position of the International Society of Sports Nutrition: safety and efficacy of creatine. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 2017;14:18. DOI
- Everaert I, Mooyaart A, Baguet A, et al. Vegetarianism, female sex, and age are associated with lower muscle carnosine. Amino Acids, 2011;40(4):1221-1229. DOI
- Gilsing AM, Crowe FL, Lloyd-Wright Z, et al. Serum vitamin B12 and folates in British omnivorous, vegetarian and vegan men: cross-sectional analysis of the EPIC-Oxford cohort. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2010;64(9):933-939. DOI
- Farrokhyar F, Tabasinejad R, Dao D, et al. Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in athletes: systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 2015;45(3):365-378. DOI
- Haider LM, Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G, Ekmekcioglu C. Effect of vegetarian diets on iron status in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 2018;58(8):1359-1374. DOI
- Foster M, Chu A, Petocz P, Samman S. Effect of vegetarian diets on zinc status: systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 2013;93(10):2362-2371. DOI
- Eveleigh ER, Coneyworth L, Welham SJM. Systematic review and meta-analysis of iodine status in current vegan and vegetarian diets. British Journal of Nutrition, 2023;130(9):1580-1594. DOI
- Geppert J, Kraft V, Demmelmair H, Koletzko B. DHA effectively increases omega-3 index in vegetarians: randomized trial. Lipids, 2005;40(8):807-814. DOI
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