The pants feel tight at the waist even though the scale has barely moved: studies confirm this common experience. In a large American cohort of 3,064 women aged 42 to 52, weight increased by an average of 2.1 kg over 3 years and waist circumference by 2.2 cm. But the details of the measurements change the picture: at the beginning of the transition, the rate of fat gain doubles and muscle mass begins to decline, while the weight curve does not accelerate.
This guide brings together what studies identified via PubMed show: the role of age and menopause, the role of hormones, muscle and sleep, what has proven effective, hormone therapy, supplements, then a practical protocol.
What happens : around menopause, weight increases mainly with age, by about 2 kg over 3 years in the reference cohort, with no acceleration specific to menopause. What changes is body composition: fat accumulates faster, particularly around the abdomen and organs, and muscle decreases. Lower estrogen, less activity and disrupted sleep contribute to this.
What helps : in menopausal women, a combination of calorie-reduced diet and exercise resulted in 10.8% weight loss in one year; in one trial, 15 weeks of strength training reduced visceral fat in regular participants; finally, adequate protein intake limited muscle loss during weight reduction. Hormone therapy does not cause weight gain and is decided with your doctor. No supplement showed notable effects on abdominal fat in the cited trials.
- Weight gain at menopause: what cohorts measure
- Why the belly rounds out
- Less muscle, less energy expenditure
- Sleep, night hot flashes and stress
- Exercise: endurance and strength training
- Protein: protecting muscle
- Diet: what trials show
- Hormone therapy and abdominal fat
- Supplements: what trials really show
- Bloated belly or fat: telling the difference
- Levers ranked and the practical protocol
- Frequently asked questions
Weight gain at menopause: what cohort studies measure
To separate age from menopause, you must follow the same women for years, like the American SWAN cohort since 1996.
Over 3 years of follow-up in 3,064 women aged 42 to 52 at baseline, average weight increased by 2.1 kg, or 3.0%, and waist circumference by 2.2 cm. The transition to menopause was associated with neither weight gain nor, significantly, waist circumference increase. Each point gained on a sports activity scale ranging from 1 to 5 was associated with 0.32 kg less weight.
At the beginning of the menopausal transition, the rate of fat gain doubled and lean mass began to decrease, up to 2 years after the last menstrual period, before stabilizing. Weight, meanwhile, increased regularly before the transition, without acceleration at the time of menopause, then its curve flattened.
Greendale GA, Sternfeld B, Huang M, et al. JCI Insight 2019;4(5):e124865. DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.124865
At equal weight, the body thus changes in composition. A vast meta-analysis confirms this: by compiling 201 cross-sectional studies, or 1,049,919 women, and 11 studies that followed 2,472 women from premenopause to postmenopause, it found after menopause a higher weight of approximately 1 kg, fat mass higher by 2.88 points and waist circumference larger by 4.63 cm. For the authors, the amount of fat depends mainly on age; menopause could mainly modify its distribution.
These figures are averages: some women do not gain weight, and the studies presented below show that lifestyle habits retain real impact. Our complete menopause guide places these changes among other symptoms of the transition, and our article on perimenopause details the early signs.
Why the belly rounds out
After menopause, fat shifts from the hips and thighs toward the trunk. The meta-analysis cited above measures this precisely: after menopause, the proportion of trunk fat is higher by 5.49 points and visceral fat, that which surrounds abdominal organs, is greater by approximately 26.9 cm² in surface area on imaging sections, while the proportion of leg fat decreases by 3.19 points. The authors see in this the probable effect of a higher androgens to estradiol ratio.
In 156 initially non-menopausal women, followed annually by scanner, all accumulated fat under the skin of the belly with age; but only the 51 women who became menopausal after 4 years showed a significant increase in visceral fat, with a decline in their estradiol. Their physical activity had decreased as early as 2 years before menopause, and their fat oxidation decreased by 32%.
Lovejoy JC, Champagne CM, de Jonge L, et al. Int J Obes (Lond) 2008;32(6):949-958. DOI : 10.1038/ijo.2008.25
It matters for health: a systematic review published in the BMJ found solid evidence of an association between weight gain in adulthood and breast cancer after menopause in women who never received hormone therapy, with an 11% higher risk per 5 kg gain, and between waist-to-hip ratio and endometrial cancer, +21% per increase of 0.1. These are associations, not proven causes, but they warrant monitoring waist circumference.
Practical tip: measure it standing, fasting, at the end of expiration, midway between the bottom of your ribs and the top of your hip, and retake the measurement every 4 weeks under the same conditions.
Less muscle, less energy expenditure
Muscle loss is the other side of the transition: in the SWAN cohort, lean mass decreased from the beginning of the transition until 2 years after the last menstruation.
In a cross-sectional study of 248 women aged 47 to 57 equipped with accelerometers, the end of perimenopause and postmenopause were associated with less lean mass. Among white women in the study, average waist circumference ranged from 96.2 cm in those who engaged in no vigorous activity to 81.4 cm in those who did at least 10 minutes daily. A cross-sectional study does not indicate what causes what.
Regarding energy expenditure, two findings complement each other. The landmark analysis of total daily energy expenditure over a lifetime, measured by doubly labeled water in people from 8 days to 95 years old, shows that at equal lean mass, expenditure remains stable between ages 20 and 60, then decreases. Metabolism does not collapse at age 50, but less muscle means less expenditure. A nuance added by the 4-year study mentioned above: in women who became menopausal, sleep energy expenditure decreased by 7.9%, compared to 5.3% in those not yet menopausal. Preserving muscle is therefore a central goal, detailed in our article on sarcopenia after age 50.
Sleep, night hot flashes, and stress
To isolate the effect of night hot flashes, researchers induced temporary menopause in 29 young women through a treatment that suppresses estradiol, and recorded their sleep. Each additional night hot flash was associated with a 62% increase in time spent awake after falling asleep and a 3% increase in the number of awakenings.
In 20 non-menopausal women aged 21 to 45, 3 nights of fragmented sleep, mimicking menopausal awakenings, decreased fat oxidation at rest while fasting and increased carbohydrate oxidation. Estradiol suppression in 9 of them produced a comparable effect. Resting energy expenditure did not change.
Grant LK, Coborn JE, Cohn A, et al. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2022;107(8):e3167-e3176. DOI : 10.1210/clinem/dgac313
Long-term, sleep deprivation is associated with weight gain. In the Nurses' Health Study, which followed 68,183 women for 16 years, those who slept 5 hours or less gained an average of 1.14 kg more than those who slept 7 hours, and their risk of gaining 15 kg was 32% higher. The effect is modest and this is an association.
Menopausal insomnia can be treated without medication. In a trial conducted with 106 women aged 40 to 65 suffering from insomnia and at least 2 hot flashes daily, 6 sessions of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia by telephone over 8 weeks brought 70% of participants below the insomnia threshold, compared to 24% in the control group, and 84% versus 43% at 24 weeks. The number of hot flashes did not change, but their impact on daily life decreased. Our article on hot flashes details other options.
Stress, finally, is often mentioned. In a study of 59 non-menopausal women, those whose fat concentrated in the abdominal area secreted more cortisol when facing stressful situations in the laboratory and reported more chronic stress. This cross-sectional study does not prove that stress causes abdominal fat gain; our article on cortisol and stress explores the topic further.
For the evening, our Optimal Sleep combines in one capsule 100 mg of lemon balm, 100 mg of hops, 50 mg of passionflower, 50 mg of valerian, and 1.9 mg of melatonin; no trial has tested this formula on weight, and it does not replace insomnia management.
Exercise: endurance and muscle strengthening
Physical activity is the most studied lever in menopausal women. A meta-analysis of 101 randomized trials, pooling 5,697 menopausal women, shows that exercise increases muscle mass and decreases fat mass, fat percentage, waist circumference, and visceral fat. Endurance and combined training had a greater effect on fat, while strengthening and combined training had a greater effect on muscle.
In 173 menopausal women aged 50 to 75 years, sedentary and overweight, a moderate-intensity activity program, mainly walking, performed on average 176 minutes per week, led to 1.4 kg more weight loss than a stretching program, 1 point more fat mass loss, and more subcutaneous abdominal fat loss. The decrease in intra-abdominal fat was not statistically significant. The longer the practice, the greater the fat loss.
Irwin ML, Yasui Y, Ulrich CM, et al. JAMA 2003;289(3):323-330. DOI: 10.1001/jama.289.3.323
In 334 inactive menopausal women, prescribing 300 minutes of exercise per week for one year rather than 150 did not result in greater total fat loss at 2 years, but did more significantly reduce body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio, and subcutaneous abdominal fat.
Muscle strengthening deserves a special place. In a Swedish trial conducted in 65 menopausal women with low activity levels and bothered by hot flashes, 15 weeks of supervised strength training, 3 times per week, reduced visceral fat and subcutaneous abdominal fat measured by MRI in adherent participants, compared to the control group. A meta-analysis of 126 studies in 4,019 women, of which 66.2% were menopausal, found a large strength gain (effect size of 1.46 in menopausal women, beyond 0.8 which marks a large effect) and a small decrease in fat mass (0.30, close to the 0.2 threshold of a small effect), with no difference between menopausal women and younger women.
| Program | Result | Study |
|---|---|---|
| Walking and moderate-intensity activity, 176 minutes per week, 12 months | −1.4 kg and −1 point of fat mass compared to stretching | Irwin, 2003 |
| 300 versus 150 minutes per week, 12 months | No significant difference in total fat at 2 years, less subcutaneous abdominal fat with 300 minutes | Friedenreich, 2019 |
| Supervised strength training, 3 times per week, 15 weeks | Decrease in visceral and abdominal fat on MRI in adherent participants | Nilsson, 2023 |
Protein: protecting muscle
Losing weight results in fat loss, but also some muscle loss, which is already declining at menopause. The European expert group PROT-AGE recommends at least 1.0 to 1.2 g of protein per kilogram per day after age 65, at least 1.2 g for active individuals, except in cases of severe kidney disease. For a 65 kg woman, this represents 65 to 78 g per day (our calculation).
In 24 menopausal women with obesity, averaging 58 years of age, 20 weeks of calorie-reduced diet resulted in 8.4 kg weight loss with a protein intake of 1.2 to 1.5 g per kilogram per day, and 11.4 kg with 0.5 to 0.7 g, a non-significant difference. However, the proportion of weight lost as lean mass was 17.3% in the first group, compared to 37.5% in the second.
Gordon MM, Bopp MJ, Easter L, et al. J Nutr Health Aging 2008;12(8):505-509. DOI: 10.1007/BF02983202
Whey , or whey protein, was tested in this context. In a double-blind trial conducted in 31 menopausal women averaging 65 years of age, overweight or obese, a 1,400 kcal diet supplemented with 2 doses of 25 g of whey protein per day for 6 months resulted in 8.0% weight loss, compared to 4.1% with a control carbohydrate, a difference at the threshold of significance. Total lean mass did not change differently between the two groups. A meta-analysis of trials in women aged 55 and older clarifies the conditions: when combined with strength training, whey increased leg lean mass and arm strength; without strength training, no effect on muscle, and in both cases no effect on fat mass or weight., ou protéine de lactosérum, a été testée dans ce contexte. Dans un essai en double aveugle mené chez 31 femmes ménopausées de 65 ans en moyenne, en surpoids ou en situation d'obésité, un régime à 1 400 kcal complété par 2 doses de 25 g de protéines de lactosérum par jour pendant 6 mois a fait perdre 8,0 % du poids, contre 4,1 % avec un glucide de contrôle, un écart à la limite de la significativité. La masse maigre totale n'a pas évolué différemment entre les deux groupes. Une méta-analyse d'essais chez des femmes de 55 ans et plus précise les conditions : associée à la musculation, la whey a augmenté la masse maigre des jambes et la force des bras ; sans musculation, aucun effet sur le muscle, et dans les deux cas aucun effet sur la masse grasse ni sur le poids.
To put the numbers honestly: in the 6-month trial, women took 2 doses of 25 g of whey protein per day in addition to a structured diet; our 100% Whey isolate provides 22.9 g of protein per 30 g dose. The priority remains the total daily protein intake, distributed across meals; our article on whey reviews its proven effects.
Diet: what the trials show
No food targets the belly: it's the energy balance that matters, maintained over time.
In 439 sedentary postmenopausal women, overweight or obese, averaging 58 years old, one year of a calorie and fat-reduced diet resulted in 8.5% weight loss, one year of 45-minute aerobic exercise 5 days per week resulted in 2.4% loss, and the combination of both resulted in 10.8% loss, versus 0.8% in the group with no changes. Waist circumference and fat percentage decreased following the same trend.
Foster-Schubert KE, Alfano CM, Duggan CR, et al. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2012;20(8):1628-1638. DOI: 10.1038/oby.2011.76
On a very large scale, the dietary component of the Women's Health Initiative followed 48,835 postmenopausal women for an average of 7.5 years. The group that reduced fat and ate more vegetables, fruits, and grains, without a calorie target, lost 2.2 kg in the first year and remained lighter than the control group: 1.9 kg difference at one year, 0.4 kg at 7.5 years. The difference narrows over time, with no weight regain observed.
In this same trial, among 17,473 women not on hormone therapy, those who had hot flashes and lost at least 10% of their weight in the first year had a greater chance of seeing their symptoms disappear (odds ratio of 1.56): an observational analysis, to be confirmed.
Our article losing weight after 50 details how to implement a moderate deficit, and our analysis of flat belly separates what works from what doesn't, such as abdominal exercises to "burn" local fat.
Hormone therapy and abdominal fat
Does hormone therapy cause weight gain? Trials do not confirm this. A systematic review of 22 randomized trials found no significant difference in weight gain between treated women and others, whether the treatment combined estrogen and progestin (−0.47 kg) or not (+0.66 kg): it does not add to the weight gain that normally accompanies menopause.
In non-diabetic postmenopausal women, hormone therapy reduced abdominal fat by 6.8%, insulin resistance by 12.9%, and the risk of newly diagnosed diabetes (relative risk of 0.7). The oral route produced more marked metabolic effects than the transdermal route, but increased C-reactive protein, an inflammation marker, by 37.6%.
Salpeter SR, Walsh JME, Ormiston TM, et al. Diabetes Obes Metab 2006;8(5):538-554. DOI: 10.1111/j.1463-1326.2005.00545.x
A Swiss study conducted in 1,053 women aged 50 to 80 points in the same direction: at equal age, current users had less visceral fat and a body mass index 0.9 points lower, and did not show the increase in visceral fat observed over 10 years in others. No benefit on muscle, and no advantage in former users. Cross-sectional study: an association, not a demonstrated effect.
These findings do not make hormone therapy a treatment for weight gain. According to the 2022 position statement of the North American menopause medical society, it remains the most effective treatment for hot flashes and prevents bone loss; for women under 60 years or menopause within the last 10 years, without contraindication, the benefit-risk ratio is favorable in case of bothersome hot flashes. Started after age 60 or more than 10 years after menopause onset, it appears less favorable (higher risks of coronary disease, stroke, venous thrombosis, and dementia in absolute value). Type, dose, route, and duration modify these risks: the decision is individual, to be made and reassessed with your doctor. Non-hormonal medications also exist for hot flashes, and your doctor can present them to you.
Supplements: what the trials really show
Let's be clear: none of the plants in Menopause Bio is a fat burner. We identified no trial showing that hops, sage, lemon balm, maca, or blackcurrant help you lose belly fat; their value is in comfort during the transition.
For phytoestrogens, such as soy isoflavones, a meta-analysis of 23 randomized trials in 1,880 postmenopausal women found no effect on weight, body mass index, waist circumference, fat mass, or fat percentage, with a very slight decrease in the waist-to-hip ratio. In healthy women, weight decreased slightly by 0.28 kg; in those who already had a metabolic disorder (prediabetes, diabetes, high blood pressure, or high cholesterol), weight increased by 0.78 kg instead. Kudzu is not cited among the products studied: these results are not directly transferable to it.
On symptoms, the data are more encouraging but limited, and each trial tested its own preparation:
| Plant and preparation tested | Result | Limitations |
|---|---|---|
| Hops, standardized extract at 100 or 250 µg of 8-prenylnaringenin per day, 12 weeks | Hot flash score reduced compared to placebo at 6 weeks; overall menopause index not significant at 12 weeks | 67 women, no dose effect (Heyerick, 2006) |
| Sage, tablet of fresh leaves once daily, 8 weeks | Hot flash score −50% at 4 weeks, −64% at 8 weeks | 71 women, open-label trial without placebo, first author affiliated with the preparation manufacturer (Bommer, 2011) |
| Maca, 3.5 g of powder per day, 6 weeks crossover | Anxiety, depressive symptoms and sexual dysfunction improved, with no hormonal change | 14 women (Brooks, 2008) |
These trials tested specific preparations: a hops extract standardized to 8-prenylnaringenin, fresh sage leaves in tablet form, maca powder at 3.5 g per day. None tested Menopause Bio, which combines in 3 capsules 480 mg of hops, 390 mg of sage, 300 mg of lemon balm, 300 mg of maca and 100 mg of blackcurrant, different preparations and quantities: these results therefore cannot be attributed to it. Our formula is a organic plant supplement designed for the menopause period, not a weight loss product. Its long-term use is not recommended, as is its use by women with a personal or family history of breast cancer, and the dose of 3 capsules per day should not be exceeded.
The Kudzu, another option in our range, provides 750 mg of root per 2 capsules; its isoflavone content is not indicated, and it is not recommended in case of a history of breast cancer, pregnancy, breastfeeding or hormone-dependent disorder. See our articles on kudzu and menopause and its precautions for use. If you are already taking Organic Maca, of which 4 capsules provide 1.28 g of root, account for the cumulative effect with the maca in Menopause Bio.
Hops, sage and kudzu isoflavones are studied for their estrogenic-type activity. In case of a personal or family history of breast cancer, a history of endometrial cancer or any hormone-dependent disease, these supplements are not indicated: discuss with your doctor, who may direct you toward other options.
Bloated belly or fat: tell the difference
Not all "menopausal belly" is fat. In a study conducted in 228 women attending primary care, 38% of menopausal women reported altered bowel movements, compared to 14% of non-menopausal women; gas and bloating (48% prevalence) were more frequent in menopausal women, and irritable bowel-type complaints peaked at 36% between ages 40 and 49. Age could also play a role, and a 2025 review of 122 studies judges this research still incomplete.
Bloating varies throughout the day, often after meals or in the evening; abdominal fat evolves over months and is tracked by waist circumference measured when fasting. Both can coexist. Our article on bloated belly and bloating details the causes and digestive solutions.
Persistent or worsening bloating, increasing abdominal volume, early satiety, unexplained weight loss, blood in stools or permanently altered bowel movements: speak with your doctor without delay.
Ranked strategies and practical protocol
The table ranks the strategies according to the evidence level of the cited studies.
| Lever | Measured Effect | Level of Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Calorie-reduced diet and exercise | −10.8% weight loss in one year, waist circumference and fat reduced | High: large randomized trial in postmenopausal women |
| Endurance exercise | Less fat mass, waist circumference, and visceral fat | High: meta-analysis of 101 trials |
| Strength training | Increased strength and muscle; in one trial, reduced visceral fat in 15 weeks in consistent participants | Good: meta-analyses and MRI trial |
| Adequate protein | Less muscle lost during weight loss | Moderate: small trials, expert recommendations |
| Sleep | Insomnia significantly reduced by behavioral therapy; link with weight observed | Good for insomnia, indirect for weight |
| Hormone therapy | No weight gain, −6.8% abdominal fat | High, but medical decision for other reasons |
| Phytoestrogens | No effect on weight or fat mass | Meta-analysis of 23 trials |
| Menopause herbs | Comfort during transition in small trials, no demonstrated effect on belly fat | Low: small, short trials, sometimes without placebo |
This protocol assembles parameters from the presented trials, for a healthy woman; in case of chronic illness or resuming after a long break, have it validated by your doctor.
Physical activity : medical advice if you have cardiovascular disease or uncontrolled high blood pressure. Proteins : in case of kidney disease, intake should be determined with your doctor. Menopause Bio : maximum 3 capsules per day, not for long-term use, not recommended if you have a personal or family history of breast cancer. Kudzu : not recommended if you have a history of breast cancer, pregnancy, breastfeeding, or hormone-dependent disorder. Hormone therapy : only on prescription, after evaluating benefits and risks with your doctor.
Five plants from organic farming, in vegetable capsules, to support the menopause period alongside physical activity, diet, and sleep. Three capsules per day with meals provide 480 mg of hops, 390 mg of sage, 300 mg of lemon balm, 300 mg of maca, and 100 mg of black currant.
View Menopause BioTo protect muscle, our 100% Whey Isolate provides 22.9 g of protein per 30 g serving.
Frequently asked questions
Why do we gain belly fat at menopause?
With declining estrogen, fat is distributed more toward the trunk and around organs, and less on the hips and thighs. At the beginning of the transition, the rate of fat gain doubles and muscle mass decreases, while weight does not accelerate.
How many kilograms do women typically gain at menopause?
In the American SWAN cohort, women aged 42 to 52 gained an average of 2.1 kg in 3 years, and their waist circumference increased by 2.2 cm. A meta-analysis found approximately 1 kg more and 4.63 cm more waist circumference after menopause, with differences mainly linked to age.
How to lose belly fat at menopause?
By combining moderately calorie-reduced eating and exercise: in postmenopausal women, this combination resulted in 10.8% weight loss over one year, with reduced waist circumference. In one trial, strength training, 3 sessions per week, also reduced visceral fat in 15 weeks among consistent participants.
What sport is best for losing abdominal fat after menopause?
Endurance exercise, such as brisk walking or cycling, acts mainly on fat, while strength training acts on muscle; in one trial, it also reduced visceral fat in consistent participants. A meta-analysis of 101 trials in postmenopausal women shows that combined training provides both benefits.
How much protein should you eat at menopause?
A European expert group recommends at least 1.0 to 1.2 g per kilogram per day after age 65, and at least 1.2 g for active individuals, except in cases of severe kidney disease. During weight loss, an intake of 1.2 to 1.5 g per kilogram reduced the proportion of muscle lost in one trial of postmenopausal women.
Does hormone therapy cause weight gain?
No according to trials: a review of 22 randomized trials shows no additional weight gain under hormone therapy. A meta-analysis of 107 trials even shows a decrease of 6.8% in abdominal fat. It should be decided with your doctor, not for weight loss.
Do menopause supplements cause weight loss?
No. A meta-analysis of 23 trials shows no effect of phytoestrogens on weight or fat mass, and none of the plants in Menopause Bio is a fat burner.
Does lack of sleep cause weight gain during menopause?
It is modestly associated with it: in 68,183 women followed for 16 years, sleeping 5 hours or less was associated with 1.14 kg more than with 7 hours.
Bloated belly at menopause: fat or bloating?
A belly that varies throughout the day, swells after meals and is accompanied by gas is more likely bloating, which is common during this period. Abdominal fat evolves slowly and is tracked by measuring waist circumference in the morning on an empty stomach.
Does belly fat disappear after menopause?
It is not fixed: fat gain slows down approximately 2 years after the last period, and trials show that exercise and appropriate nutrition reduce waist circumference and visceral fat in menopausal women.
Sources
The studies cited below were identified via PubMed.
- Sternfeld B, Wang H, Quesenberry CP, et al. Physical activity and changes in weight and waist circumference in middle-aged women: results from the SWAN study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 2004;160(9):912-922. DOI
- Greendale GA, Sternfeld B, Huang M, et al. Changes in body composition and weight during the menopausal transition. JCI Insight, 2019;4(5):e124865. DOI
- Ambikairajah A, Walsh E, Tabatabaei-Jafari H, Cherbuin N. Changes in fat mass at menopause: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2019;221(5):393-409.e50. DOI
- Foster-Schubert KE, Alfano CM, Duggan CR, et al. Effect of diet and exercise, alone or combined, on weight and body composition in overweight or obese menopausal women. Obesity (Silver Spring), 2012;20(8):1628-1638. DOI
- Joffe H, Crawford S, Economou N, et al. A GnRH agonist model shows that nocturnal hot flashes interrupt objectively measured sleep. Sleep, 2013;36(12):1977-1985. DOI
- Lovejoy JC, Champagne CM, de Jonge L, et al. Increased visceral fat and decreased energy expenditure during the menopausal transition. International Journal of Obesity, 2008;32(6):949-958. DOI
- Kyrgiou M, Kalliala I, Markozannes G, et al. Adiposity and cancer by major anatomical sites: an umbrella review of the literature. BMJ, 2017;356:j477. DOI
- Sternfeld B, Bhat AK, Wang H, et al. Menopause, physical activity and body composition and fat distribution in middle-aged women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 2005;37(7):1195-1202. DOI
- Pontzer H, Yamada Y, Sagayama H, et al. Daily energy expenditure across the human lifespan. Science, 2021;373(6556):808-812. DOI
- Grant LK, Coborn JE, Cohn A, et al. Sleep fragmentation and estradiol suppression decrease fat oxidation in non-menopausal women. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 2022;107(8):e3167-e3176. DOI
- Patel SR, Malhotra A, White DP, et al. Association between reduced sleep and weight gain in women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 2006;164(10):947-954. DOI
- McCurry SM, Guthrie KA, Morin CM, et al. Cognitive and behavioral therapy for insomnia by telephone in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women with vasomotor symptoms: MsFLASH randomized trial. JAMA Internal Medicine, 2016;176(7):913-920. DOI
- Epel ES, McEwen B, Seeman T, et al. Stress and body shape: stress-induced cortisol secretion is consistently higher in women with central fat. Psychosomatic Medicine, 2000;62(5):623-632. DOI
- Khalafi M, Habibi Maleki A, Sakhaei MH, et al. Effects of physical training on body composition in menopausal women: systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 2023;14:1183765. DOI
- Irwin ML, Yasui Y, Ulrich CM, et al. Effect of exercise on total and intra-abdominal fat in menopausal women: randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 2003;289(3):323-330. DOI
- Friedenreich CM, Ruan Y, Duha A, Courneya KS. Effects of exercise dose on body fat 12 months after an intervention: follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Obesity, 2019;2019:3916416. DOI
- Nilsson S, Hammar M, West J, et al. Strength training decreased abdominal adiposity in menopausal women. Maturitas, 2023;176:107794. DOI
- Isenmann E, Geisler S, Havers T, et al. It's Never Too Late: Effects of Resistance Training on Strength and Body Composition in Women of All Ages, a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 2026;29(10):1174-1185. DOI
- Bauer J, Biolo G, Cederholm T, et al. Evidence-Based Recommendations for Optimal Protein Intake in Older Adults: Position Statement of the PROT-AGE Group. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 2013;14(8):542-559. DOI
- Gordon MM, Bopp MJ, Easter L, et al. Effects of Dietary Protein on Body Composition Changes in Weight Loss Among Postmenopausal Women. The Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging, 2008;12(8):505-509. DOI
- Mojtahedi MC, Thorpe MP, Karampinos DC, et al. Effects of Higher Protein Intake During Caloric Restriction on Body Composition and Physical Function in Older Women. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 2011;66(11):1218-1225. DOI
- Kuo YY, Chang HY, Huang YC, Liu CW. Effect of Whey Protein Supplementation in Postmenopausal Women: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 2022;14(19):4210. DOI
- Howard BV, Manson JE, Stefanick ML, et al. Low-Fat Dietary Pattern and Weight Change Over 7 Years: The Women's Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial. JAMA, 2006;295(1):39-49. DOI
- Kroenke CH, Caan BJ, Stefanick ML, et al. Effects of a Dietary Intervention and Weight Change on Vasomotor Symptoms in the Women's Health Initiative. Menopause, 2012;19(9):980-988. DOI
- Norman RJ, Flight IH, Rees MC. Estrogen and Progestin Hormone Replacement Therapy in Perimenopausal and Postmenopausal Women: Weight and Fat Distribution. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2000;(2):CD001018. DOI
- Salpeter SR, Walsh JME, Ormiston TM, et al. Meta-Analysis: Effect of Hormone Replacement Therapy on the Components of Metabolic Syndrome in Postmenopausal Women. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, 2006;8(5):538-554. DOI
- Papadakis GE, Hans D, Gonzalez Rodriguez E, et al. Menopausal Hormone Therapy is Associated with Reduced Total and Visceral Adiposity: The OsteoLaus Cohort. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 2018;103(5):1948-1957. DOI
- The 2022 Hormone Therapy Position Statement Advisory Panel. The 2022 Position Statement of the North American Menopause Society on Hormone Therapy. Menopause, 2022;29(7):767-794. DOI
- Glisic M, Kastrati N, Musa J, et al. Phytoestrogen supplementation and body composition in postmenopausal women: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Maturitas, 2018;115:74-83. DOI
- Heyerick A, Vervarcke S, Depypere H, et al. First prospective, randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled study of a standardized hop extract to relieve menopausal discomfort. Maturitas, 2006;54(2):164-175. DOI
- Bommer S, Klein P, Suter A. First evidence of the tolerability and efficacy of sage in postmenopausal women suffering from hot flashes. Advances in Therapy, 2011;28(6):490-500. DOI
- Brooks NA, Wilcox G, Walker KZ, et al. The beneficial effects of maca on psychological symptoms and sexual function in postmenopausal women are not related to estrogen or androgen content. Menopause, 2008;15(6):1157-1162. DOI
- Triadafilopoulos G, Finlayson M, Grellet C. Digestive transit disorders in postmenopausal women. Women and Health, 1998;27(4):55-66. DOI
- Shaw N, Abbott R, Pettinger C. Volume and characteristics of research on digestive symptoms in natural perimenopause and postmenopause: a scoping review. Women's Health (London), 2025;21:17455057251387470. DOI
